Ground ice

Ground ice denotes ice within frozen or partly frozen ground, irrespective of the form of occurrence or origin of the ice. The water (ice) content of frozen ground is measured in terms of visible, gravimetric, volumetric and excess-ice content. Ground ice forms by different processes of moisture transfer to the freezing plane or burial of surface ice. A near-surface layer of ground ice commonly develops in the upper meters of permafrost developed in porous substrates. Mapping of ground ice is essential for scientific and engineering purposes.