Adaptation to climate change in agriculture: a multi-level analysis of climate change adaptation among farming communities in Nepal

Climate change is threatening the livelihoods and food security of farmers worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Adaptation to climate change is vital to minimise its negative impacts on agriculture. Despite increased awareness of this issue, efforts and outcomes related to adaptation to climate change vary widely across developing countries. This research explores how the adaptation practices of small farmers are affected by various factors at multiple levels: household, community, and policy. In this regard, at the household level, the research investigates psychological and situational factors that influence adaptation to climate change. At the community level, the study examines farmers’ everyday lives to identify how farmers in these Indigenous communities use and convert capital in their adaptation efforts and what the outcomes of these efforts are. Finally at the policy level, this study explores how multiple (local, national, international) actors with differing interests and power, interact in the climate adaptation policy process and how these interactions affect policy outcomes. To fulfil the aims, the research used a mixed method approach to collect data through household survey (546), semi-structured interviews (36), Focus Group Discussion (FGD) (6) and Participant Observation (PO) (8), for an in-depth understanding of the adaptations to climate change made by the three Indigenous farming communities - Tharu, Gurungs and Yolmo - in Nepal.

The findings of the study showed that adaptation decision at the household level is influenced by subjective beliefs and situational factors. Given that decisions are not made in isolation, but within their social contexts exploring capitals and how different groups of farmers at the community level access, control as well as convert capitals is important to understand adaptation behaviour. While an adaptation practice can be an opportunity for privileged groups due to their ability to utilise their position and privilege, the same adaptation can trap disadvantaged groups with limited access to capitals. Considering that privileged groups are better able to access adaptation programmes and funds, the policy level analysis showed how different interests, and narratives of dominant policy actors inadvertently affect the effective participation of most vulnerable farmers. These findings provide a nuanced understanding of climate change adaptation by Indigenous farmers and emphasise the need to consider and address community level differences and the dynamics of policy process on adaptation. Not considering these will lead to repeated failed implementation of adaptation interventions.