The purpose of this investigation was to examine alterations in lymphocyte proliferation activity and T cell subsets following an acute bout of exercise in young and old subjects. Six young (26 ± 3 years) and nine old (69 ± 5 years) male subjects were tested at rest and immediately after 20 min of submaximal exercise at 50% peak work capacity. Arterial blood was sampled from an indwelling catheter for catecholamine and immunology assays. Peripheral blood lymphocytes were isolated for mitogen-induced phytohemagglutinin (PHA) proliferation capacity. Lymphocyte subsets were analyzed by dual-labeled flow cytometry. As has been shown in previous studies, baseline proliferative responsiveness was significantly lower in the old (↓ 22%) compared to the young subjects. In response to submaximal exercise, proliferative responsiveness to PHA increased significantly in the young subjects (↑ 55%), however, for the old subjects this response did not differ significantly from resting values (↑ 18%). The number of total lymphocytes, as well as CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets, at rest were lower for old subjects compared with young. Exercise-induced increases in T cell subset populations were similar across age groups. It was concluded that, while having lower initial T cell numbers and PHA responsiveness, immunoresponsiveness during a single bout of exercise is, in general, maintained in old when compared to young individuals.

A synthetic sampling target has been constructed for the estimation of sampling bias and the estimation of measurement uncertainty, using inter-organisational sampling trials. The approach provides realistic estimates of uncertainty whatever sampling protocol is applied, which is in contrast to the idea of assuming that a 'correct' sampling protocol will give a representative, and unbiased sample. As this investigation is still in progress the complete results are not yet available.

New methods have recently been devised to estimate the uncertainty in measurements caused by the processes of both sampling and chemical analysis. Knowing this uncertainty, allows judgements to me made as to whether a sampling protocol is appropriate, based on a fitness-for-purpose criteria such as an acceptable level of uncertainty. A fundamental change in sampling philosophy is thereby to encourage the use of a range of appropriate sampling protocols that give estimates of uncertainty, rather
than to pursue the use of a single uniform protocol. to give measurements of acceptable quality.

It is argued that the objective of sampling should be modified from the pursuit of representative samples, to the taking of appropriate samples that have acceptable levels of uncertainty for a particular purpose. Extreme cases of sampling very heterogeneous materials, such as contaminated land and waste materials, are used to illustrate the practical impossibility of taking representative samples within a realistic budget. This tutorial review explains the terminology of uncertainty and four new methods that are available for the estimation of measurement uncertainties that arises from the processes of both primary sampling and chemical analysis. Two of these methods allow the estimation of sampling bias, which is often overlooked as a cause of uncertainty. Recent application of the methods on contaminated land have shown their practicability and have revealed very large discrepancies between the estimated levels. Sampling protocols that provide such realistic estimates of measurement uncertainty, enable a probabilistic approach to be taken to the interpretation of the measurements, rather the current deterministic approach. The existing criteria for the classification of waste material or contaminated land generally depend on a deterministic comparison between measured concentration of a contaminate and a threshold level. With large values of measurement uncertainty in the estimated concentration of the contaminant due to primary sampling, there is a large probability of the erroneous mis-classification of land. This can have legal, financial and possible health implications from both the unnecessary special treatment of 'uncontaminated' waste or land and the erroneous acceptance of uncontaminated waste or land, which is in fact contaminated. A new probabilistic classification scheme for waste is discussed that allows for the overall measurement uncertainty as well as the estimated concentration of the contaminant. A term ‘possibly contaminated’ is given to waste where the measured concentration is below a threshold, but the uncertainty interval exceeds the threshold. The acceptable probability of misclassification can be selected to reflect the risks at that particular site.

The role of the classical complement pathway in humoral immune responses was investigated in gene-targeted C1q-deficient mice (c1qa(-/-). Production of antigen-specific immunoglobulin (lg)g2a and Igg3 in primary and secondary responses to T cell-dependent antigen was significantly reduced, whereas Igm, Igg1, and Igg2b responses were similar in control and C1qa(-/-) mice. Despite abnormal humoral responses, B cells from C1qa(-/-) mice proliferated normally to a number of stimuli in vitro. Immune complex localization to follicular dendritic cells within splenic follicles was lacking in C1qa(-/-) mice. The precursor frequency of antigen-specific T cells was similar in C1qa(-/-) and wild-type mice. However, analysis of cytokine production by primed T cells in response to keyhole limpet hemocyanin revealed a significant reduction in interferon-γ production in C1qa(-/-) mice compared with control mice, whereas interleukin 4 secretion was equivalent. These data suggest that the classical pathway of complement may influence the cytokine profile of antigen-specific T lymphocytes and the subsequent immune response.

Research into the automatic acquisition of lexical information from corpora is starting to produce large-scale computational lexicons containing data on the relative frequencies of subcategorisation alternatives for individual verbal predicates. However, the empirical question of whether this type of frequency information can in practice improve the accuracy of a statistical parser has not yet been answered. In this paper we describe an experiment with a wide-coverage statistical grammar and parser for English and subcategorisation frequencies acquired from ten million words of text which shows that this information can significantly improve parse accuracy.

We investigate the topology of the new Point Source Catalogue Redshift Survey (PSCz) of IRAS galaxies by means of the genus statistic. The survey maps the local Universe with approximately 15000 galaxies over 84.1 per cent of the sky, and provides an unprecedented number of resolution elements for the topological analysis. For comparison with the PSCz data we also examine the genus of large N-body simulations of four variants of the cold dark matter (CDM) cosmogony. The simulations are part of the Virgo project to simulate the formation of structure in the Universe. We assume that the statistical properties of the galaxy distribution can be identified with those of the dark matter particles in the simulations. We extend the standard genus analysis by examining the influence of sampling noise on the genus curve and introducing a statistic able to quantify the amount of phase correlation present in the density field, the amplitude drop of the genus compared to a Gaussian field with identical power spectrum. The results for PSCz are consistent with the hypothesis of random-phase initial conditions. In particular, no strong phase correlation is detected on scales ranging from 10 to 32 h-1 Mpc, whereas there is a positive detection of phase correlation at smaller scales. Among the simulations, phase correlations are detected in all models at small scales, albeit with different strengths. When scaled to a common normalization, the amplitude drop depends primarily on the shape of the power spectrum. We find that the constant-bias standard CDM model can be ruled out at high significance, because the shape of its power spectrum is not consistent with PSCz. The other CDM models with more large-scale power all fit the PSCz data almost equally well, with a slight preference for a high-density τCDM model.

Young Carers are children and young people who provide care for an ill or disabled parent or relative in the community, usually within their own home. They perform many of the same domestic, caring and other duties as adult carers, but often without the recognition and support which many adult carers receive.

This is the first comprehensive text on young carers and their families. It examines how young carers are perceived, their varied situations, their rights and needs, and uses case studies to illustrate the dynamics of experiences and relationships. It discusses the effects of caring on the child's health and psychosocial development. It considers the policy and legal context for young carers and their families. In particular, the book considers the role and responsibliites of welfare professionals and organisations, offering guidance on how to implement policy to offer the best support. The experiences of young carers in other countries are also considered.

Key Features:
A topical book for all involved in child and family welfare
Case studies highlight the dynamics of experiences and
relationships
Promotes improvement of policy and practice
Authors founded internationally renowned Young Carers
Research Group

This is a valuable book for all student and practising social workers and community care workers and those involved in service planning and provision. It is essential reading for teachers and for students studying health and social care, social policy, sociology and nursing.

Hydrogen bonding is an important property in drug and xenobiotic interaction with biota, and numerous attempts have been made to quantify it for use in quantitative structure - activity relationships. These attempts are reviewed, and their ability to model hydrogen bond donor ability examined by correlating them with the melting points of a series of anilines, known to be very dependent on hydrogen bonding. The best model was found to be a two-parameter model involving the charge on the hydrogen bonding hydrogen(s) and the energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital. These parameters were further tested successfully by using them to replace other hydrogen bonding parameters in a series of QSAR correlations.

This paper aims at being a tool to help apply game theoretic bargaining models to wage negotiations. In this perspective, we review a number of articles which explicitly deal with wage determination as well as purely game theoretical models which we believe can be fruitfully extended to account for specific features of labour markets. We discuss some common shortcomings in the wage negotiation literature, and suggest possible lines of research worth pursuing to deal with such weaknesses.

The early stages of otic placode development depend on signals from neighbouring tissues including the hindbrain. The identity of these signals and of the responding placodal genes, however, is not known. We have identified a chick homeobox gene cNkx5-1, which is expressed in the otic placode beginning at stage 10 and exhibits a dynamic expression pattern during formation and further differentiation of the otic vesicle. In a series of heterotopic transplantation experiments, we demonstrate that cNkx5-1 can be activated in ectopic positions. However, significant differences in otic development and cNkx5-1 gene activity were observed when placodes were transplanted into the more rostral positions within the head mesenchyme or into the wing buds of older hosts. These results indicate that only the rostral tissues were able to induce and/or maintain ear development. Ectopically induced cNkx5-1 expression always reproduced the endogenous pattern within the lateral wall of the otocyst that is destined to form vestibular structures. In contrast, cPax2 which is expressed in the medial wall of the early otic vesicle later forming the cochlea never resumed its correct expression pattern after transplantation. Our experiments illustrate that only some aspects of gene expression and presumably pattern formation during inner ear development can be established and maintained ectopically. In particular, the dorsal vestibular structures seem to be programmed earlier and differently from the ventral cochlear part.

There is evidence that oligodendrocytes in the spinal cord are derived from a restricted part of the ventricular zone near the floor plate. An alternative view is that oligodendrocytes are generated from all parts of the ventricular zone. We reinvestigated glial origins by constructing chick–quail chimeras in which dorsal or ventral segments of the embryonic chick neural tube were replaced with equivalent segments of quail neural tube. Ventral grafts gave rise to both oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. In contrast, dorsal grafts produced astrocytes but not oligodendrocytes. In mixed cultures of ventral and dorsal cells, only ventral cells generated oligodendrocytes, whereas both ventral and dorsal cells generated astrocytes. Therefore, oligodendrocytes are derived specifically from ventral neuroepithelium, and astrocytes from both dorsal and ventral.

Cells of the cranial paraxial mesoderm give rise to parts of the skull and muscles of the head. Some mesoderm cells migrate from locations close to the hindbrain into the branchial arches where they undergo muscle differentiation. We have characterised these migratory pathways in chick embryos either by DiI-labelling cells before migration or by grafting quail cranial paraxial mesoderm orthotopically. These experiments demonstrate that depending on their initial rostrocaudal position, cranial paraxial mesoderm cells migrate to fill the core of specific branchial arches. A survey of the expression of myogenic genes showed that the myogenic markers Myf5, MyoD and myogenin were expressed in branchial arch muscle, but at comparatively late stages compared with their expression in the somites. Pax3 was not expressed by myogenic cells that migrate into the branchial arches despite its expression in migrating precursors of limb muscles. In order to test whether segmental plate or somitic mesoderm has the ability to migrate in a cranial location, we grafted quail trunk mesoderm into the cranial paraxial mesoderm region. While segmental plate mesoderm cells did not migrate into the branchial arches, somitic cells were capable of migrating and were incorporated into the branchial arch muscle mass. Grafted somitic cells in the vicinity of the neural tube maintained expression of the somitic markers Pax3, MyoD and Pax1. By contrast, ectopic somitic cells located distal to the neural tube and in the branchial arches did not express Pax3. These data imply that signals in the vicinity of the hindbrain and branchial arches act on migrating myogenic cells to influence their gene expression and developmental pathways.

This discussion paper reports the meeting held to analyse the implications of the election of the New Labour Government in the UK, in May 1997. The aim of this round table discussion was to draw together a range of experts who could address particular scientific questions and draw out their implications for political and economic analysis. Professor Anthony Heath addresses the issue of `How did Labour win such a historic victory?'; Professor Dorothy Wedderburn critically examines `What has New Labour Achieved?' and Jürgen Krönig assesses the implications for Germany in the forthcoming election year. Lord Ralf Dahrendorf and David Soskice draw out the political ramifications for political institutions and modernisation, and examine the economic agenda of the new government.

This paper explores the role of motivation and employer-employee interaction in promoting participation in, and the success of, work-based learning. It uses a model of motivation in order to explain the critical importance of communication in stimulating involvement in this type of activity. Congruence and dissonance between the employers' and the employees' perspectives of work-based learning are identified as a major influence that affects motivation and subsequent participation in this approach to knowledge and skill acquisition. The implications of these findings for lifelong learning and the creation of a learning society are briefly discussed.

In this article we provide a critical review of comparative political economy approaches to the regulation of work and welfare in Europe. We use the holistic concept of gendered employment systems to identify how the regulation of work and welfare is managed in different ways according to the capacity and constraints of national and European actors. A re evaluation of regulations governing the established social contract between capital and labour requires reconsideration of the nature of the gender contract between men and women. We illustrate this argument with examples of three different types of regulatory reform strategies adopted in different European societies.

The growth in part-time employment has been one of the most striking features in industrialized economies over the past forty years. Part-Time Prospects presents for the first time a systematically comparative analysis of the common and divergent patterns in the use of part-time work in Europe, America and the Pacific Rim. It brings together sociologists and economists in this wide-ranging and comprehensive survey. It tackles such areas as gender issues, ethnic questions and the differences between certain national economies including low pay, pensions and labour standards.

The importance of the role of communication in the success of individual performance in social and business life is now widely recognized. Within organizations, effective internal communication between managers and staff is vital to organizational success. This is particularly so during periods of change, when staff uncertainty increases and there is an increased need for greater amounts of information and more frequent communication. Staff in the NHS have recently experienced some quite dramatic changes in their working practices. This paper therefore examines the current state of communication within the NHS and the implications which this poses for the overall functioning of the organization. In particular, the relationship between communication and the motivation of staff is described. The nature of communication audits, the main research approach used to assesses communication effectiveness, is then delineated, and areas of the NHS chosen for analysis by this means are proposed. The results of a series of audits are summarized. Problems in information flow, use of information sources and channels, the timeliness of information exchanged, the extent to which people send information to each other and the quality of working relationships are identified. The implications of these findings for the NHS and general views of management are considered.

Communication is the lifeblood of any organisation. The need for effective internal communication systems is particularly crucial when organisations, such as schools, are operating in a turbulent environment of rapid and sustained change. Schools must be innovative to be able to respond and adapt to the challenges presented by such changes. It is now increasingly evident that those organisations which promote good internal communication reap positive dividends in meeting these challenges. However, there is a need for hard data on the nature, structure, flow and practice of communication to ensure that the most effective systems are put in place and are working to the optimal level. To achieve this a method of investigation, the communication audit, has been developed which allows for a thorough‐going analysis of internal organisational communication. Explores the principal tools utilised in the implementation of a communication audit, and discusses the benefits which this approach offers to school management teams.

There is a dearth of literature documenting the existence of cults in the political sphere. This article suggests that some left-wing organizations share a number of ideological underpinnings and organizational practices which inherently incline these groups toward the adoption of cultic practices. In particular, it is argued that the doctrines of “catastrophism” and democratic centralist modes of organization normally found among Trotskyist groupings are implicated in such phenomenon. A case history is offered of a comparatively influential Trotskyist grouping in Britain, which split in 1992; and it is suggested that an analysis of the organization in terms of cultic norms is particularly fruitful. This is not intended to imply that a radical critique of society is necessarily inappropriate. Rather, it is to argue that political movements frequently adopt organizational forms, coupled with “black and white” political programs, that facilitate the exercise of undue social influence. This stifles genuinely creative political thought. Also considered are issues suggested by this analysis that are particularly pertinent for those involved in radical politics.

Interlinked social and economic changes in Britain, particularly over the last two decades, have changed the climate in which individuals make consumer choices. Higher disposable incomes, coupled with an easier availability of consumer credit, mean wider choices for a greater number of individuals. An important theme of the ‘Economic Beliefs and Behaviour’ programme is to highlight in diverse domains that the process of choice is more complex than the operation of purely ‘rational’ (in a traditional economic sense) considerations on clear pre-existing preferences. The research reported in this chapter relates to this theme by addressing the claim that widening consumer choices mean that buying behaviour has assumed a greater personal significance in individuals’ lives. Through an examination of buying behaviour and buying motivations we attempt to show that choices about consumer durables are influenced by particular non-functional aspects of goods. Specifically, consumer goods also have symbolic meanings on which people can and do draw in constructing and expressing a sense of self and identity. Buying goods in order to bolster one’s self-image is probably a motivation that plays some role for all buying behaviour, but may be particularly important when people engage in unplanned ‘spur of the moment’ purchases.

This paper reports a preliminary investigation into the vocal health of primary, secondary and grammar school teachers. Data is specific to Northern Ireland and was obtained through the use of specially designed questionnaires which were sent to speech and language therapists and a group of teachers and non-teachers outside the clinical setting. The findings show that teachers run a considerably higher risk of presenting in clinic with a voice problem. There is evidence of marked differences in self-reported symptoms, perceived causative factors and attitudes to management of voice problems among teachers compared to non-teachers. These findings support the implementation of specific voice conservation and care for those in the teaching profession.

This article discusses ways of giving support to auditors in addressing moral dilemmas. Codes of Ethics are very important in this context but are in the final analysis insufficient devices, because their necessarily generalised form has to be translated into the specific situation and thus requires acceptance rather than merely adherence. Codes have to be complemented with developed ethical reasoning of accountants. Hence, individual ethical principles are discussed which have been applied to accounting in the recent literature, i.e. utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics and ethics of care. Unsurprisingly, none emerges as giving completely satisfactory solutions. Yet eclecticism can be avoided by using compound models, which combine individual principles to provide reasonably comprehensive cover of decision‐making in a business context.

This volume aims to present the full story of the Cold War's secret but very real war in which hundreds of combatants lost their lives. Long before Gary Powers' U2 spyplane was shot down over the USSR in 1960, and undeclared war was being fought in the stratosphere. This was the aerial espionage war between the West and the Soviet Union. Investigative journalist Paul Lashmar has uncovered evidence of secret missions flown by US Air Force and Royal Air Force crews, deep into the Soviet Union. He has interviewed USAF and RAF participants, and the Red Air Force pilots that tried - sometimes successfully - to shoot them down. He has also discovered details of a 1950s USAF plan to use these spy flights to provoke a nuclear World War III that would have wiped the Soviet Union and China from the face of the earth. Evidence, both documentary and interview, from the former Soviet Union reveals the extent of political tension created by the spyplane war. From 1950, over 40 western aircraft were shot down and hundreds of air force officers died or remain missing. This book documents the hunt for these Cold War MIAs (missing in action).

Contains details of the Foreign Office's Information Research Department (IRD), set up in 1948, including evidence of IRD's hidden hand in domestic politics, overthrowing left-wing governments and assisting Britain's entry into the Common Market. The authors discuss the impact of IRD both domestically and internationally.

Provides a review and ready reference to recent writings on new service development (NSD), especially for the financial services sector. Discusses the types of new service development, the purposes served by them and the processes. Refers to the key activities of NSD and measures its success. An annotated bibliography supplies a very useful guide to the new service development literature.

Unlike companies that produce tangible goods, service firms typically cannot rely on product advantage as a means for ensuring the success of a new service. Developing a competitive response to a tangible product may require significant investments of time and effort. In many cases, however, competitors can easily duplicate the core elements of a firm's new service. This fundamental difference between new products and new services means that managers who hope to find the keys to new-service success must look to factors other than sustainable product advantage.

Chris Storey and Christopher Easingwood suggest that managers must understand the totality of the service offering from the customer's perspective. They explain that the purchase of a service is influenced not only by the service itself, but also by such factors as the service firm's reputation and the quality of the customer's interaction with the firm's systems and staff—in other words, by the augmented service offering (ASO). Using the results of a study they conducted in the consumer financial services industry in the U.K., they identify the components of the ASO, and they examine the relative contributions of these components to the success of new services.

In their model, the ASO comprises three elements: the service product, service augmentation, and marketing support. The core of the ASO—the service product—includes such dimensions as product quality, product distinctiveness, and perceived risk. The study's results suggest that improvements in the service product open up new opportunities for the firm, but have only modest effects on sales and profitability.

Rounding out the ASO model are service augmentation and marketing support. Service augmentation encompasses such dimensions as distribution strength, staff-customer interactions, and reputation. The customer recognizes and responds to these elements of the ASO, but they are not part of the product core. Marketing support involves those marketing and management actions that affect the quality of the product and its augmentation, even though customers typically are not aware of them. These elements include knowledge of the marketplace, training of contact staff, and internal marketing. Enhanced service augmentation has significant effects on profitability and sales for the firms in this study, but it does not offer enhanced opportunities. The marketing support elements contribute significantly to all aspects of performance for the firms in this study.

A twin study design was used to examine to what extent genetic and environmental factors mediate the association between life events and depressive symptoms. Questionnaire measures (maternally rated) of depressive symptoms and life events were obtained for a systematically ascertained sample of 270 twin pairs aged 8 to 17 years. Bivariate genetic model fitting showed that depressive symptoms and some life events (total events, negative impact) share a common genetic influence. The covariation of independent life events and depressive symptoms was explained by a shared environmental influence common to both. At least part of the association between life events and depressive symptoms is mediated by familial factors that include both genes and shared environment.

A new stereophotolithography technique utilizing a spatial light modulator ~SLM! to create threedimensional
components with a planar, layer-by-layer process of exposure is described. With this
procedure it is possible to build components with dimensions in the range of 50 mm–50 mm and feature
sizes as small as 5 mm with a resolution of 1 mm. A polysilicon thin-film twisted nematic SVGA SLM
is used as the dynamic photolithographic mask. The system consists of eight elements: a UV laser
light source, an optical shutter, beam-conditioning optics, a SLM, a multielement reduction lens system,
a high-resolution translation stage, a control system, and a computer-aided-design system. Each of
these system components is briefly described. In addition, the optical characteristics of commercially
available UV curable resins are investigated with nondegenerate four-wave mixing. Holographic gratings
were written at a wavelength of 351.1 nm and read at 632.8 nm to compare the reactivity, curing
speed, shrinkage, and resolution of the resins. These experiments were carried out to prove the suitability
of these photopolymerization systems for microstereolithography.

Hsp90 is an abundant molecular chaperone essential to the establishment of many cellular regulation and signal transduction systems, but remains one of the least well described chaperones. The biochemical mechanism of protein folding by Hsp90 is poorly understood, and the direct involvement of ATP has been particularly contentious. Here we demonstrate in vitro an inherent ATPase activity in both yeast Hsp90 and the Escherichia coli homologue HtpG, which is sensitive to inhibition by the Hsp90-specific antibiotic geldanamycin. Mutations of residues implicated in ATP binding and hydrolysis by structural studies abolish this ATPase activity in vitro and disrupt Hsp90 function in vivo. These results show that Hsp90 is directly ATP dependent in vivo, and suggest an ATP-coupled chaperone cycle for Hsp90-mediated protein folding.

This article contributes to the growing historiography of Mozambique's devastating recent war through a study of the borderlands of the Maputo hinterland. I focus on the districts of Matutuíne and Namaacha where the war was profoundly shaped by the dual influences of the international borders and the capital city. Though the intensity of the government's military response prevented rebel control of sizeable populations inside the country, the borders allowed Renamo to develop crucial international networks of support in South Africa and Swaziland: this strategy and the social networks upon which it relied, meant that Renamo's relationship with civilians and alliances with chiefs were significantly different from those described in the existing literature. I show Renamo's social base in the so-called 'zones of destruction' to be more complex than hitherto understood, particularly in so far as the rebels were able to - or tried to - win a constituency other than youth. Stereotypes in the existing literature of a wartime social and spatial polarisation between rural, traditionalist Renamo communities living in isolation from the market and modern, urban society loyal to the government are inadequate and misleading: not only were Renamo soldiers and allied civilians deeply imbricated in the cross border economy, but soldiers of both sides had common interests in controlling movement and wartime trade. As the capital's fuel needs soared during the war, groups of young men left the capital and moved into the city's hinterland to burn charcoal. Replacing local communities displaced by the war, these government controlled charcoal burning settlements were dominated by uneducated male youth who cut to get quick profits, gained a reputation for violence, and brought about an increasingly predatory relationship between the capital city and its hinterland. © 1998 Journal of Southern African Studies.

The structure of the particle formed by the SFVmSQL mutant of Semliki Forest virus (SFV) has been defined by cryo-electron microscopy and image reconstruction to a resolution of 21 Å. The SQL mutation blocks the cleavage of p62, the precursor of the spike proteins E2 and E3, which normally occurs in the trans-Golgi. The uncleaved spike protein is insensitive to the low pH treatment that triggers membrane fusion during entry of the wild-type virus. The conformation of the spike in the SFVmSQL particle should correspond to that of the inactive precursor found in the early stages of the secretory pathway. Comparison of this 'precursor' structure with that of the mature, wild-type, virus allows visualization of the changes that lead to activation, the first step in the pathway toward fusion. We find that the conformational change in the spike is dramatic but localized. The projecting domains of the spikes are completely separated in the precursor and close to generate a cavity in the mature spike. E1, the fusion peptide-bearing protein, interacts only with the p62 in its own third of the trimer before cleavage and then collapses to form a trimer of heterotrimers (E1E2E3)3 surrounding the cavity, poised for the pH-induced conformational change that leads to fusion. The capsid, transmembrane regions and the spike skirts (thin layers of protein that link spikes above the membrane) remain unchanged by cleavage. Similarly, the interactions of the spikes with the nucleocapsid through the transmembrane domains remain constant. Hence, the interactions that lead to virus assembly are unaffected by the SFVmSQL mutation.

Objectives: To assess the sensitivity of saphenous vein to potassium channel opening drugs (KCOs). Methods: Saphenous vein, harvested at bypass surgery or high ligation for correction of varicose veins, was exposed to an in vitro flow circuit and vasomotor responses assessed by organ bath pharmacology. Outcome measures: Effective drug concentrations for 50% reduction in vein ring tension (IC50). Results: Vein rings pre-contracted with phenylephrine showed a concentration-dependent relaxation to all the KCOs tested with a potency ranking of HOE 234 > cromakalim > pinacidil > diazoxide. The relaxation to cromakalim was endothelium-independent and was inhibited by glibenclamide (an ATP-sensitive K+ channel blocker). The sensitivity of vein rings to cromakalim increased after exposure to arterial flow conditions for 90 minutes (IC50 before 1.7 ± 0.25 μM and after 0.25 ± 0.08 μM, p > 0.001). This effect was not evident after 90 min of venous flow conditions, 2.19 ± 0.49 μM. When the workload on vein, exposed to arterial flow conditions, was reduced mechanically by external stenting with PTFE the increased sensitivity to cromakalim was abolished. Conclusion: Saphenous vein has ATP-sensitive K+ channels responsive to KCOs. The increased sensitivity to cromakalim, induced by arterial flow conditions, may represent and endogenous protective mechanism limiting ischaemic damage resulting from the higher workload imposed on grafted vein.

Whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiological investigation of endothelial cells cultured from human saphenous vein (HSVECs) has identified a voltage- gated Na+ current with a mean peak magnitude of -595 ± 49 pA (n = 75). This current was inhibited by tetrodotoxin (TTX) in a concentration-dependent manner, with an IC50 value of 4.7 μM, suggesting that it was of the TTX- resistant subtype. An antibody directed against the highly conserved intracellular linker region between domains III and IV of known Na+ channel α-subunits was able to retard current inactivation when applied intracellularly. This antibody identified a 245-kDa protein from membrane lysates on Western blotting and positively immunolabeled both cultured HSVECs and intact venous endothelium. HSVECs were also shown by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction to contain transcripts of the hH1 sodium channel gene. The expression of Na+ channels by HSVECs was shown using electrophysiology and cell-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to be dependent on the concentration and source of human serum. Together, these results suggest that TTX-resistant Na+ channels of the hill isoform are expressed in human saphenous vein endothelium and that the presence of these channels is controlled by a serum factor.

Adaptation of saphenous vein, with its intrinsic myogenic tone, from the low-pressure, minimally pulsatile flow of the venous system to the pulsatile flow of the arterial circulation is a minor miracle. Changes in gene expression caused by the pulsatile circumferential deformation (cyclic strain) initiate changes in gene expression, which lead to both vein graft adaptation and pathology. Removal of circumferential deformation by external stenting attenuates the early changes in gene expression and the later development of intimal hyperplasia. Pathways for the transduction of cyclic strain into cellular events have been elucidated in cultured vascular cells: The important second messengers include calcium and reactive oxygen species.

Preparation of 2-(purin-9-yl)-tetrahydrofuran-3,4-diol nucleosides as antiinflammatory agents and agonists against adenosine receptors.

Preparation of pyrazines as anticonvulsants.

Why do nations and industrial sectors cease to be pioneers? This question is discussed for the case of The Netherlands. Why was innovation in The Netherlands in the nineteenth century virtually limited to elaborating on developments in other countries whereas before it had been a technological paradise? It is argued here that no single reason can account for this loss of technological leadership. A complex of — often mutually reinforcing — factors was at work, some more important than others depending on the sector. The core of the explanation is that the Dutch had developed their own technological regime which was perfected before the nineteenth century. When a new regime emerged elsewhere it was difficult for the Dutch to adjust because of a complex set of barriers embedded in the existing technological regime. The inclination was to revitalise the old merchant capitalist regime and with success — albeit limited in the long run —, as some of the cases in the article show. This conclusion leads to a further question: How do regime shifts occur? Drawing on an evolutionary model, it is argued that new technologies emerge in technological niches, which after a process of branching can lead to a regime shift. Such a shift happens when successful niche formation coincides with a number of favourable external developments. Successful niche formation depends on the articulation of expectations, the coupling of new markets and new technologies, the development of new networks and the emergence of new competencies.

The nucleoside oxidase from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (FERM BP-2252) has been used to generate 5′-carboxylic acid derivatives of nucleoside analogues. The enzyme, which has a surprisingly broad substrate specificity for unnatural nucleosides, has been immobilised and used at preparative scale.

A variety of cyclopropanone acetal derivatives were found to undergo facile Fe(III) mediated oxidative radical cyclisation to the corresponding trisubstituted cyclopentane esters in good yield and with diastereoselectivities as high as 23:1.

Voltage-gated ion channels are emerging as a target class of increasing importance to the pharmaceutical industry because of their relevance to a wide variety of diseases in the cardiovascular, CNS and metabolic areas. In the quest to identify novel lead molecules against these targets, drug discovery programmes are increasingly making use of HTS approaches. The authors describe the current technologies available for voltage-gated ion-channel screening, their application to HTS campaigns and the current limitations and emerging technologies within this area.

N-type calcium channels are located at presynaptic termini throughout the central nervous system (CNS), where they play a key role in the regulation of neurotransmitter release. In the pain pathway, N-type calcium channels in the spinal cord directly mediate spinal transmission of pain signals from the periphery to the CNS. In cerebral ischaemia, neuronal injury is also, in part, mediated through the activity of N-type calcium channels. The recent development of a selective N-type calcium channel blocking peptide, SNX-111 (Ziconotide, Neurex Corp., USA) has shown unequivocally that the N-type calcium channel is an important drug target for both analgesia and neuroprotection. SNX-111 is now in late stage clinical development for the treatment of various acute and chronic pain states, brain damage following cerebral ischaemia, closed head trauma and coronary artery bypass surgery. Over the last decade, the search for a selective small molecule blocker of N-type channels has been intense and has resulted in the discovery of a number of promising compounds, although none so far have been reported to have entered clinical trials.

Replicator dynamics and computer simulation techniques are used to construct a reduced-form model which explores negative and positive feedback between the rate of a firm's cost reduction and its market share (‘dynamic’ returns to scale). Life-cycle phenomena are explored by combining positive and negative feedback in a firm's cost function. The objective of the model is to reproduce the patterns of concentration and instability found across a wide set of industries. Simulation results find that dynamic decreasing returns to scale produce instability and multiple equilibria in market shares, very different from the results generated from ‘static’ decreasing returns to scale.

This paper examines the accuracy of earnings forecasts made by managers of Malaysian initial public offerings (IPOs) during the period 1984-1995. It is a mandatory requirement for Malaysian IPOs to furnish earnings forecasts together with the opinions thereon of the auditors and the lead underwriter in their prospectuses. Their accuracy is measured by forecast errors, absolute forecast errors, squared forecast errors and standardised forecast errors. The results suggest that, on average, managers under-forecast earnings by 33.37%. A comparison with the naive no change model in earnings suggests that 96 Out of 122 companies outperform this model. A number of company specific characteristics (size, age, forecast interval, gearing, proportion of shares retained by owners, auditor reputation and industry) are tested. The results reveal that both the age and industry classification of the company are statistically significant, and that management earnings forecasts are particularly inaccurate where firms experience a decline in earnings.

Parasite resistance mechanisms can be costly to maintain. We would therefore predict that organisms should invest in resistance only when it is likely to be required. Insects that show density-dependent phase polyphenism, developing different phenotypes at high and low population densities, have the opportunity to match their levels of investment in resistance with the likelihood of exposure to pathogens. As high population densities often precipitate disease epidemics, the high-density form should be selected to invest relatively more in resistance. We tested this prediction in larvae of the noctuid Spodoptera exempta. Larvae reared at a high density were found to be considerably more resistant to a nuclear polyhedrosis virus than those reared in isolation. A conspicuous feature of the high-density phase of S. exempta and other phase-polyphenic Lepidoptera is cuticular melanization. As melanization is controlled by the phenoloxidase enzyme system, which is also involved in the immune response, this suggests a possible mechanism for increased resistance at high population densities. We demonstrated that melanized S. exempta larvae were more resistant than non-melanized forms, independent of rearing density. We also found that haemolymph phenoloxidase activity was correlated with cuticular melanization, providing further evidence for a link between melanization and immunity. These results suggest that pathogen resistance in S. exempta is phenotypically plastic, and that the melanized cuticles characteristic of the high-density form may be indicative of a more active immune system.

The fecundity of insect-pollinated plants may not be linearly related to the number of flowers produced, since floral display will influence pollinator foraging patterns. We may expect more visits to plants with more flowers, but do these large plants receive more or fewer visits per flower than small plants? Do all pollinator species respond in the same way? We would also expect foragers to move less between plants when the number of flowers per plant are large, which may reduce cross-pollination compared to plants with few flowers. We examine the relationships between numbers of inflorescence per plant, bumblebee foraging behaviour and seed set in comfrey, Symphytum officinale, a self-incompatible perennial herb. Bumblebee species differed in their response to the size of floral display. More individuals of Bombus pratorum and the nectar-robbing B. terrestris were attracted to plants with larger floral displays, but B. pascuorum exhibited no increase in recruitment according to display size. Once attracted, all bee species visited more inflorescences per plant on plants with more inflorescences. Overall the visitation rate per inflorescence and seed set per flower was independent of the number of inflorescences per plant. Variation in seed set was not explained by the numbers of bumblebees attracted or by the number of inflorescences they visited for any bee species. However, the mean seed set per flower (1.18) was far below the maximum possible (4 per flower). We suggest that in this system seed set is not limited by pollination but by other factors, possibly nutritional resources.

Honey bees, Apis mellifera, use short-lived repellent Scent marks to distinguish and reject flowers that have recently been visited by themselves or by siblings, and so save time that would otherwise be spent in probing empty flowers. Conversely, both honey bees and bumblebees, Bombus spp., can mark rewarding flowers with scent marks that promote probing by conspecifics. We examined detection of recently visited flowers in a mixed community of bumblebees foraging on comfrey, Symphytum officinale, in southern England. When foraging among inflorescences on a plant, three abundant species of Bombus probed fewer inflorescences more than once than would be expected from random foraging. Bees frequently encountered inflorescences but departed without probing them for nectar. Examination of the incidence of such rejections in the two most common species, B. terrestris and B. pascuorum, revealed that the low incidence of multiple probing visits was due to two factors: bees both foraged systematically and selectively rejected inflorescences that they had previously visited. When presented with inflorescences of known history, bees selectively rejected those that had been recently visited by themselves or by conspecifics compared with randomly selected inflorescences. They were also able to distinguish inflorescences that had been visited by other Bombus species. Bees were unable to distinguish and reject inflorescences from which the nectar had been removed artificially. We conclude that these Bombus species are probably using scent marks left by previous visitors. The significance of deposition and detection of interspecific scent marks for competitive interactions between species is discussed.

We have found that foraging bumblebees (Bombus hortorum, B. pascuorum, B. pratorum and B. terrestris) not only avoid flowers of Symphytum officinale that have recently been visited by conspecifics but also those that have been recently visited by heterospecifics. We propose that the decision whether to reject or accept a flower is influenced by a chemical odour that is left on the corolla by a forager, which temporarily repels subsequent foragers. Honeybees and carpenter bees have previously been shown to use similar repellent forage-marking scents. We found that flowers were repellent to other bumblebee foragers for approximately 20 min and also that after this time nectar levels in S. officinale flowers had largely replenished. Thus bumblebees could forage more efficiently by avoiding flowers with low rewards. Flowers to which extracts of tarsal components were applied were more often rejected by wild B. terrestris workers than flowers that had head extracts applied, which in turn were more often rejected than flowers that had body extracts applied. Extracts from four Bombus species were equally repellent to foragers. The sites of production of the repellent scent and its evolutionary origins are discussed.

The causes and consequences of flower constancy have been the focus of many studies, but almost all have examined the foraging behavior of bumblebees, honeybees, or butterflies. We test whether constancy occurs in an overlooked group of pollinators, the syrphid flies. Foraging sequences of wild flies of two species, Episyrphus balteatus and Syrphus ribesii, were examined when visiting flowers in seminatural plant communities and in artificial arrays of two color morphs of Lobularia maritima planted at a range of frequencies. Both species exhibited marked floral constancy when foraging in the mixed-plant community. Because all groups of pollinating insect so far examined exhibit constancy at least under some circumstances, we suggest that this is the predominant strategy used by pollinators and that there is probably a common explanation. Neither syrphid species exhibited constancy to different color morphs within a plant species, in contrast to previously published studies of Hymenoptera foraging among polymorphic flowers, which all describe positive frequency-dependent selection. Possible explanations for this discrepancy are discussed. We argue that constancy in these syrphids is unlikely to result from learning constraints on handling ability, currently the most widely accepted explanation for flower constancy, because they forage primarily for pollen which is easily located in most flowers they visit.

We assessed the combined effects of varying the relative density and the relative floral morphological complexity of plant species on the behaviour of their bumblebee pollinators. Three species of bumblebee (Bombus pascuorum, B. terrestris and B. horrorum) were observed foraging on experimental arrays consisting of pair-wise combinations of four plant species: Borago officinalis, Phacelia tanacetifolia (both with simple flowers), Antirrhinum majus and Linaria vulgaris (both with complex flowers). Plant arrangements consisted of either two simple-flower species, a simple with a complex species or two complex species. The number of plants in each array was constant, while the frequency of each species was manipulated so that it was either rare, equal or common compared with its competitor. Contrary to predictions, rare plants were actually at an advantage in terms of the number of bees attracted per plant. However, rare plants were at a disadvantage in terms of pollen wastage because foragers more often went to a flower of another species after visiting a rare plant. The behaviour of bees on each plant species was further affected by plant floral complexity and the identity of the other species in the array. The three bumblebee species were markedly different in their foraging behaviour and in their responses to varying floral density and complexity. Each species preferred particular flower species. The results are discussed with reference to resource partitioning among bumblebee species.

Field trials investigating the effect of food baits on catches of Musca domestica at toxic targets impregnated with the female sex pheromone, (Z)-9-tricosene, were conducted in a caged-layer deep-pit poultry unit in southern England. Targets treated with an Alfacron-sugar mixture and baited with 2.5 g of 40% (Z)-9-tricosene beads caught significantly greater numbers of both male and female M. domestica than control targets. Egg and milk-baited targets were less attractive than controls, while brewers yeast slightly increased the numbers of M. domestica attracted. However, the inclusion of brewers yeast in (Z)-9-tricosene-impregnated targets produced a significant reduction in the number of male M. domestica attracted. Increased female attraction was elicited by baiting the targets with 2-phenylethanol, at the quantities of 1 mg and 10 mg. However, 2-phenylethanol had no effect on female attraction when presented in conjunction with (Z)-9-tricosene. The implications of these results in relation to the control of M. domestica populations in poultry units are discussed.

A field trial comparing the effectiveness of toxic targets impregnated with different formulations of the Musca domestica L. female sex pheromone (Z)-9-tricosene was conducted in a caged-layer, deep-pit poultry unit in southern England. Targets baited with 5 g of technical grade (Z)-9-tricosene, or 5 g of a 40% polymer bead formulation, caught significantly greater numbers of M. domestica than control targets. This increase in attractiveness of the pheromone-impregnated targets persisted for at least 24 wk. However, mean daily catch rates of M. domestica at targets baited with 5 g of a 2% wettable powder formulation did not significantly differ from control levels. Technical grade and bead formulations of the pheromone attracted significantly more males than females. However, the catches of female M. domestica at these pheromone-impregnated targets were significantly greater than female catches at control targets. Monitoring with sticky cards indicated that the introduction of toxic targets successfully suppressed adult M. domestica population density for up to 13 wk. Possible hypotheses explaining the effect of (Z)-9-tricosene on female attraction are discussed.

Illicit computer intruders, or hackers, are often thought of as pathological individuals rather than as members of a community. However, hackers exist within social groups that provide expertise, support, training, journals and conferences. This article outlines this community to establish the nature of hacking within ‘information societies’. To delineate a ‘sociology of hackers’, an introduction is provided to the nature of computer–mediated communication and the act of computer intrusion, the hack. Following this the hacking community is explored in three sections. First, a profile of the number of hackers and hacks is provided by exploring available demographics. Second, an outline of its culture is provided through a discussion of six different aspects of the hacking community. The six aspects are technology, secrecy, anonymity, membership fluidity, male dominance and motivations. Third, an exploration of the community's construction of a boundary, albeit fluid, between itself and its other, the computer security industry, is provided. This boundary is constructed through metaphors whose central role is to establish the ethical nature of hacking. Finally, a conclusion that rejects any pathologisation of hackers is offered.

The price time series of the Italian government bonds (BTP) futures is studied by means of scaling concepts originally developed for random walks in statistical physics. The series of overnight price differences is mapped onto a one-dimensional random walk: the bond walk. The analysis of the root mean square fluctuation function and of the auto-correlation function indicates the absence of both short- and long-range correlations in the bond walk. A simple Monte Carlo simulation of a random walk with trinomial probability distribution is able to reproduce the main features of the bond walk.

A model of surface deconstruction in 1+1 dimensions is presented in this paper. The process of decay goes on only at surface sites in a reaction-limited regime and the statistical properties of surface sites are studied in comparison with the well-known results of the Eden growth. In particular, the dynamic behaviour of the short-time exponent β is investigated for large strips and differences between Eden growth and the present decay model are pointed out. It is shown how a simple scheme of site extraction can produce a multiple cluster decay whose secondary mechanical effects often arise from and overlap to a generic process of chemical erosion. The analysis of the particles released during deconstruction is related to experimental results on highly ordered pyrolythic graphite. Such an analysis can explain some discrepancies between continuum theory and a specific chemical disaggregation.

Structural changes in monolayers of the enantiomer and the racemic mixture of 1-hexadecyl-glycerol with temperature and surface pressure variations are compared. On compression, both monolayers exhibit a variation of the tilt azimuth from the direction to the nearest neighbor to the next nearest neighbor. In the monolayer of the racemate, this variation occurs as a first order transition. In the monolayer of the enantiomer, the unit cell is oblique, and continuously passes from a state close to the low-pressure state of the racemate to a state close to its high-pressure state. The azimuths of the unit-cell distortion and that of the tilt remain almost equal to each other. The effect of chirality decreases when the temperature is increased. Structural changes are explained in detail within the framework of the Landau theory of phase transitions.

The collective (or chemical) diffusion in interacting repulsive lattice gases is studied both in triangular and square symmetries. The effect of lateral interactions at the saddle point position is taken into account. The collective diffusion coefficient Dc is calculated within the generalized Darken equation (GDE). Under this approximation memory effects are neglected and Dc is expressed as the ratio of the average jump rate〈w〉and of the zero-wave-vector static structure factor S(0). Both quantities are calculated by the cluster variation method with clusters of seven (in the triangular lattice) and nine (in the square lattice) sites. It is shown that Dc has a very complicated behaviour in the regions of the phase diagrams where ordered phases are formed. This happens at coverages around θ=1/3 and 2/3 in the triangular lattice and around θ=1/2 in the square lattice. The lateral interactions at the saddle point have strong quantitative effects on Dc, but many qualitative features are preserved. In the square lattice case, our results are compared to those of Monte Carlo simulations by Uebing and Gomer, with excellent agreement. This shows that memory effects are not of great importance even at low temperatures.

For the first time, we observe long-living voltage fluctuations in a bilayer membrane of diphytanoyl phosphatidylcholine held in current-clamp conditions. These fluctuations follow an increase of the membrane conductance due to the opening of hydrophilic pores induced by the transmembrane voltage, a phenomenon called electroporation. The measured power spectrum for membranes under these conditions is proportional to the reciprocal of the frequency.

Diffusion is studied in a two-dimensional gas of triangular symmetry with repulsive interactions. The collective diffusion coefficient, Dc, is calculated as the ratio of the average jump rate and the zero-wave-vector static structure factor (Darken approximation). The dependence of Dc on coverage, θ, is studied in both the disordered and ordered regions of the phase diagram. It is shown that, around the coverages of the perfect ordered phases (θ=1/3 and 2/3), Dc changes of orders of magnitude in tiny θ ranges.

Results of electrical measurements performed on diphytanoyl phosphatidylcholine planar membranes are presented. The membranes are held in current-clamp conditions and a transition to a low-resistance non-stationary flicker-fluctuating state is induced. In these conditions, the membrane is stimulated by a sine-wave input current and its electrical behaviour is completely characterized in a frequency range between 0.1 and 10 Hz. In this range, the sine-wave membrane response turns out to be linear.

We report the observation of X-ray scattering profiles from monolayers of octadecanoic acid in the vicinity of room temperature and evidence for the existence near room temperature of all four hexatic rotator phases L2d, Ov, L‘1, and LS, which differ in the details of their molecular tilt. While the incontrovertible triple-reflection signature of the chiral L‘1 phase was not observed, we propose that the previously reported rapid annealing behavior in this phase can lead to the disappearance of one, and in some cases two, of the three peaks.

We have performed a thorough infrared study of the adsorption of CO over the temperature range from 90 to 300 K. CO occupies on-top sites exclusively at all coverages and temperatures. No C-O frequency change is seen when the (1 x 2) reconstructed surface phase converts to the (1 x I) surface phase. At 300 K, the on-top CO molecules are bonded to the top layer of Pt atoms only. At 90 K. the observed saturation coverage on the frozen-in (I x 2) surface is the same as that at 300 K and hence on-top sites on second layer Pt atoms must also be occupied. Heating: the saturated adlayer formed at 90 K to 140-160 K leads to a marked intensity increase in the CO band, which is assigned to the creation of a c(8 x 4) surface phase; Further heating above 250 K completely converts the Pt surface to the (1 x 1) phase. The driving force for the restructuring process is the increase in heat of adsorption for on-top CO on top row atoms compared with second layer Pt atoms which must exceed the energy difference between the two clean surface phases. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

We present the first infrared vibrational study of the adsorption of NO on Pt(110) over a wide range of temperatures. Adsorption is strongly dependent on both temperature and coverage, with many different species being formed on the surface. Under all conditions, site switching is observed during NO adsorption: at low coverages bridge-bonded species are formed on the surface, and at very high coverage NO switches to on-top sites. Other species, not previously reported, are also observed, depending on both adsorption temperature and coverage. The clean Pt(110) surface exhibits a (1 x 2) surface reconstruction which can be lifted by the adsorption of NO (or CO), depending on surface temperature and adsorbate coverage. In contrast to CO adsorption, the on-top surface species shows different frequencies on the(1 x 2) and(1 x 1) surface phases, and this is deployed to identify the temperature at which the reconstruction begins to lift.

At very low CO coverages on Pt(110)-(1 x 2) at 30 K, two C-O stretch infrared bands are observed. Warming to > 40 K results in the loss of the high-frequency band and growth of the low-frequency band. Further warming to greater than or equal to 60 K reverses this process. This reversal is attributed to a thermodynamic transition between 1D islands, or chains, of CO molecules and a 1D gas. The process at greater than or equal to 40 K is attributed to the onset of surface diffusion, when chain condensation occurs from the adsorbate randomly formed at 30 K. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

The unsustainability of the present trajctories of technical change in sectors such as transport and agriculture is widely recognized. It is far from clear, however, how a transition to more sustainable modes of development may be achieved. Sustainable technologies that fulful important user requirements in terms of performance and price are most often not available on the market. Ideas of what might be more sustainable technologies exist, but the long development times, uncertainty about market demand and social gains, and the need for change at different levels in organization, technology, infastructure and the wider social and institutional context-provide a great barrier. This raises the question of how the potential of more sustainable technologies and modes of development may be exploited. In this article we describe how technical change is locked into dominant technological regimes, and present a perspective, called strategic niche management, on how to expedite a transition into a new regime. The perspective consists of the creation and/or management of nichesfor promising technologies.

Failures of Gamma nails which treat unstable femoral fractures have been reported. In this paper, a finite element model to include a Gamma nail within a fractured femur was used to investigate the stresses in the Gamma nail. The effects for different types of fracture were investigated. The results show that its use for subtrochanteric fractures will cause higher stresses at the lag screw and upper distal screw insertion holes in the nail than when used for femur neck fractures.

In the UK, as elsewhere in Europe, bees are valued not only for the honey and wax that they produce, but also for the pollination service that they provide to the majority of our crops and wild flowers. However, no estimate of their value in economic terms has been made in recent years

A geometrically exact and completely consistent finite element theory for curved and twisted beams is proposed. It is based on the kinematical hypothesis generally formulated for large deformation and accounts for all kinds of deformation of a three-dimensional solid: translational and rotational displacements of the cross-sections, warping of their plane and distortion of their contours. The principle of virtual work is applied in a straightforward manner to all non-zero six components of the strain and stress tensors. Expressions are given for tangent matrices of elastic, inertia and external forces and specific techniques for discretization and updating are developed for the analysis of beams in inertial and non-inertial frames. Finally, the numerical properties of the finite element models are demonstrated through examples. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Consistent finite element formulations for beams made of anisotropic materials and taking into account non-classic, inhomogeneous torsion have been developed. The formulations are based on a kinematical hypothesis that includes exact solutions for three-dimensional solids under terminal loading. They describe warping of the cross-sections in and out of their planes as well as their rigid displacements and rotations. Their large deformation and geometrically exact description by finite rotations are considered for the cases of monoclinic, orthotropic and transversely isotropic materials. Exact solutions for the solid made from a monoclinic material have been deduced. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

U937 cell clones which sustain efficient or poor replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) (referred to herein as plus clones and minus clones, respectively) have been previously described. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (vitamin D3) potently induced HIV-1 replication and proviral DNA accumulation in minus clones but not in plus clones. Vitamin D3 did not induce NF-kappaB activation but selectively upregulated CXCR4 expression in minus clones. The CXCR4 ligand stromal-cell derived factor-1 induced Ca2+ fluxes and inhibited both constitutive and vitamin D3-enhanced HIV replication in minus clones.

Induction of chemokine gene expression from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated by proinflammatory cytokines plays an important role in both wound repair and response to infectious agents. In the present study, we show that the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) potently induced mRNA expression and secretion of the CC chemokine monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) in PBMCs. In addition, because human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in vivo and in vitro has been shown to dysregulate the production of and/or the response to cytokines, PBMCs from both healthy uninfected and HIV-infected individuals were studied for their constitutive and IL-6-induced expression of MCP-1. No substantial differences were observed between the two groups of individuals. In addition, IL-6 upregulated MCP-1 expression in the promonocytic cell line U937 and in its chronically HIV-infected counterpart, U1. In these cell lines, IL-6 selectively induced MCP-1 and not other chemokines, including regulated upon activation normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES), macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha), MIP-1beta, and IL-8. IL-6 induction of MCP-1 was partially inhibited by hydrocortisone in U1 cells. Thus, IL-6 activates PBMCs to secrete MCP-1, a CC chemokine pivotal for monocyte recruitment in tissue and organs in which important inflammatory events occur.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether the CC-chemokine monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 could play a role in the pathogenesis of HIV infection of the central nervous system. This hypothesis was suggested by previous observations, including our finding of elevated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of this chemokine in patients with cytomegalovirus (CMV) encephalitis.

DESIGN AND METHODS

CSF levels of MCP-1 were determined in 37 HIV-infected patients with neurological symptoms, and were compared with both the presence and severity of HIV-1 encephalitis at post-mortem examination and CSF HIV RNA levels. MCP-1 production by monocyte-derived macrophages was tested after in vitro infection of these cells by HIV.

RESULTS

CSF MCP-1 levels were significantly higher in patients with (median, 4.99 ng/ml) than in those without (median, 1.72 ng/ml) HIV encephalitis. Elevated CSF MCP-1 concentrations were also found in patients with CMV encephalitis and with concomitant HIV and CMV encephalitis (median, 3.14 and 4.23 ng/ml, respectively). HIV encephalitis was strongly associated with high CSF MCP-1 levels (P = 0.002), which were also correlated to high HIV-1 RNA levels in the CSF (P = 0.007), but not to plasma viraemia. In vitro, productive HIV-1 infection of monocyte-derived macrophages upregulated the secretion of MCP-1.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these in vivo and in vitro findings support a model whereby HIV encephalitis is sustained by virus replication in microglial cells, a process amplified by recruitment of mononuclear cells via HIV-induced MCP-1.

Nanotechnology is a novel technological field said to be one of the key technologies in the 21st century revolutionizing information technology, materials and medicine. Bibliometric quantification is a way to show the emergence of a new technology. Braun et al. ~ could establish an exponential growth pattern of publications in nano-science and technology starting in the early 1990s. Using their study as basis we intend to further characterize uanotechnology using bibliometric as well as patent data. We can show that the share of boundary-spanning publications is exceptionally high in the field of nanotechnology. Our co-authorship analysis indicates that countries foIlow different patterns of collaboration. Some countries tend to have bilateral relations while others collaborate with a much larger array of nations. Patent data in combination with bibliometric reveals differences in the application of science. In our conclusion we raise a number of questions requiting an analysis using also other types of data. Still, a closer investigation and disaggregation of bibliometric data may come up with additional findings.

In a previous study on the effects of N-supply on leaf cell elongation, the spatial distribution of relative cell elongation rates (RCER), epidermal cell turgor, osmotic pressure (OP) and water potential (Psi) along the elongation zone of the third leaf of barley was determined (W. Fricke et al. 1997, Planta 202: 522-530). The results suggested that in plants receiving N at fixed relative addition rates (N-supply limitation of growth), cell elongation was rate-limited by the rate of solute provision, whereas in plants growing on complete nutrient solution containing excessive amounts of N (N-demand limitation), cell elongation was rate-limited by the rate of water supply or wall yielding. In the present paper, these suggestions were tested further. The generation rates of cell OF, turgor and Psi along the elongation zone were calculated by applying the continuity equation of fluid dynamics to the previous data. To allow a more conclusive interpretation of results, anatomical data were collected and bulk solute concentrations determined. The rate of OF generation generally exceeded the rate of turgor generation. As a result, negative values of cell Psi were created, particularly in demand-limited plants. These plants showed highest RCER along the elongation zone and a Psi gradient of at least -0.15 MPa between water source (xylem) and expanding epidermal cells. The latter was similar to a theoretically predicted value (-0.18 MPa). Highest rates of OP generation were observed in demand-limited plants, with a maximum rate of 0.112 MPa.h(-1) at 16-20 mm from the leaf base. This was almost twice the rate in N-supply-limited plants and implied that the cells in the leaf elongation zone were capable of importing (or synthesising) every minute almost 1 mM of osmolytes. Potassium, Cl- and NO3- were the main inorganic osmolytes (only determined for demand-limited plants). Their concentrations suggest that, unlike the situation in fully expanded epidermal cells, sugars are used to generate OP and turgor. Anatomical data revealed that the zone of lateral cell expansion extended distally beyond the zone of cell elongation. It is concluded that leaf cell expansion in barley relies on high rates of water and solute supply, rates that may not be sustainable during periods of sufficient N-supply (limitation by water supply: Psi gradients) or limiting N-supply (limitation by solute provision: reduced OF-generation rates). To minimise the possibility of growth limitation by water and osmolyte provision, longitudinal and lateral cell expansion peak at different locations along the growth zone.

Previous studies on the regulation of c-myc have focused on the transcriptional control of this proto-oncogene. We have investigated the signalling pathways involved under circumstances in which there is a translational upregulation in the levels of c-myc protein. We have demonstrated an up to tenfold serum-dependent increase of c-myc protein levels in Epstein-Barr virus immortalized B-cell lines 2-4 h after disruption of cellular aggregates, which is not accompanied by an equivalent increase in mRNA. Overall protein synthesis rates only increased threefold suggesting that the c-myc message was being selectively translated. We observed increases in the phosphorylation of p70 and p85 S6 kinases and of initiation factor eIF-4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) 1-2 h after stimulation, suggesting activation of the FRAP/TOR signalling pathway. The increased phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 led to a decrease in its association with eIF-4E and an increase in its association with the eIF-4G component of the eIF-4F initiation complex. The signalling inhibitors rapamycin and wortmannin blocked the phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 and abolished the translational component of the c-myc response. Our data suggest that dissociation of eIF-4E from 4E-BP1, leading to an increase in the formation of the eIF-4F initiation complex, relieves the translation repression imposed on the c-myc mRNA by its structured 5'UTR.

The paper discusses valuation issues in the context of climate change impact estimation. Issues addressed are aggregation of damage costs over diverse regions (particularly equity-weighting), differentiation of per-unit values, willingness to pay versus willingness to accept compensation as a basis for valuation, and accountability for impacts. Numerical illustrations show that the damage cost estimates are quite sensitive to the assumptions made on these issues.

Changes in solar activity are regularly forwarded as an hypothesis to explain the observed global warming over the last century. The support of such claims is largely statistical, as knowledge of the physical relationships is limited. The statistical evidence is revisited. Changing solar activity is a statistically plausible hypothesis for the observed warming, if short-term natural variability is the only alternative explanation. Compared to the enhanced greenhouse effect, the solar hypothesis looses a substantial part of its plausibility. Reversely, the size and significance of the estimated impact of the enhanced greenhouse effect on the global mean temperature is hardly affected by solar activity.

This paper demonstrates that there is a robust statistical relationship between the records of the global mean surface air temperature and the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide over the period 1870-1991. As such, the enhanced greenhouse effect is a plausible explanation for the observed global warming. Long term natural variability is another prime candidate for explaining the temperature rise of the last century. Analysis of natural variability from paleo-reconstructions, however, shows that human activity is so much more likely an explanation that the earlier conclusion is not refuted. But, even if one believes in large natural climatic variability, the odds are invariably in favour of the enhanced greenhouse effect. The above conclusions hold for a range of statistical models, including one that is capable of describing the stabilization of the global mean temperature from the 1940s to the 1970s onwards. This model is also shown to be otherwise statistically adequate. The estimated climate sensitivity is about 3.8°C with a standard deviation of 0.9°C, but depends slightly on which model is preferred and how much natural variability is allowed. These estimates neglect, however, the fact that carbon dioxide is but one of a number of greenhouse gases and that sulphate aerosols may well have dampened warming. Acknowledging the fact that carbon dioxide is used as a proxy for all human induced changes in radiative forcing brings a lot of additional uncertainty. Prior knowledge on both climate sensitivity and radiative forcing is needed to say anything about the respective sizes. A fully Bayesian approach is used to combine expert knowledge with information from the observations. Prior knowledge on the climate sensitivity plays a dominant role. The data largely exclude climate sensitivity to be small, but cannot exclude climate sensitivity to be large, because of the possibility of strong negative sulphate forcing. The posterior of climate sensitivity has a strong positive skewness. Moreover, its mode (again 3.8 °C; standard deviation 2.4°C) is higher than the best guess of the IPCC.

The behaviour of future policy-makers substantially influences future greenhouse gas emissions. Uncertainty about the motives of future policy-makers may thus strongly influence the climate policy strategies of current policy-makers. Analytical and numerical analyses in this paper confirm this hypothesis. If current policy-makers want to constrain emissions accumulated over a prolonged period of time, and if future policy-makers tend, with a certain chance, to a less ambitious climate policy, then current policy-makers should intensify their efforts to reduce emissions and the cost of emission reduction. In this setting, if current policy-makers want to meet a cumulative emission contraint in expectation, then the preferred policy trajectory does not qualitatively deviate from one suggested by a standard cost-effective trajectory. If, however, the constraint is to be met with a certain probability, then the importance of early action is enhanced relative to that of postponed action. Costs substantially increase if current policy-makers want to set long-term goals without the full cooperation of future policy-makers.

Several issues relating to insurance and the damage costs of climate change are discussed. It is argued that the option of insuring climate change is severely limited because the associated damages are hardly quantifiable and little diversifiable; in addition, binding contracts are a problem on long time scales and in an international context. Hedging, consumption smoothing over time, precautionary investments and liability are not to be presented under the heading of insurance, not only because this unnecessarily and confusingly expands the traditional definition of insurance, but also because this could create a false sense of security. The impact of climate change on the profitability of the commercial insurance sector is not likely to be severe, as the insurance companies are capable of shifting changed risks to the insured, provided that they are properly and timely informed on the consequences of climate change.

GCMs project higher temperatures for all of Europe, with greater changes at higher latitudes. In Northern and Western Europe, winter precipitation may increase, and summer precipitation may remain unchanged. Different models show different changes for Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. Water resources follow roughly the same patterns, although higher temperatures increase the risk of summer droughts, particularly in Southern and Central Europe. In Western Europe, river floods may increase. Vegetation patterns may drastically change, with some species and communities expanding and other shrinking. Particularly vulnerable are ecosystems depending on northern cold, and ecosystems isolated by geography or human activity. On the whole, agriculture would seem to benefit from climatic change, although not-well-understood pests and water availability may alter this. Sea level rise would negatively affect low-lying coasts and deltas, which support important natural and human systems. In a warmer climate, cold-related health problems would decline, but heat-related ones would increase. Tentatively, the balance is reduced mortality. Less important climate-related diseases would, on balance, increase. Research on other sector has progressed less far; results show mixed positive and negative impacts. Expressing all impact in money and adding up suggests a light negative overall impact of climate change on Europe.

The paper provides an overview of attempts to represent climate change impact in over twenty integrated assessment models (IAMs) of climate change. Focusing on policy optimization IAMs, the paper critically compares modeling solutions, discusses alternatives and outlines important areas for improvement. Perhaps the most crucial area of improvement concerns the dynamic representation of impact, where more credible functional forms need to be developed to express time-dependent damage as a function of changing socio-economic circumstances, vulnerability, degree of adaptation, and the speed as well as the absolute level of climate change.

The recent literature discusses optimal paths towards stabilization of atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. The differences in the impact of climate change between alternative scenarios have largely been ignored, however. This paper analyses these differences. Using a selection of plausible, yet speculative, models of climate change impact and a range of sensitivity analyses, it is shown that no stabilization path is unambiguously preferred to its alternative. The ambiguity originates both from the limited scientific knowledge and from ethical choices (eg time discount rate). However, over most of the assumption space explored here, there appears to be a preference for an earlier reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The best estimate of the additional impact caused by a delay of emission reduction is smaller than the cost savings, but uncertainties are too large to draw this conclusion with any certainty.

The Kyoto Protocol conflicts with a rational view of what short-term climate policy should achieve. Chosen emission reduction targets conflict with individual and social interests, and will therefore be hard to reach. Possibilities to cheat on the agreement are plentiful. Methane emission reduction may help to meet the short-term aims, but does not contribute to the ultimate objective.

Integrated Environmental Assessment (IEA) can be loosely defined as policy-relevant, multidisciplinary research on environmental issues. Many, diverse activities in this broad field are ongoing, but the approaches lack the structure, standardization and quality control common in disciplinary research. IEA has three stages: "structuring the problem", "analyzing the problem" and "communicating the findings and insights". Each stage has its inherent difficulties, not least because problem definition and analysis are neither separable nor unambiguous nor unique. Difficulties are exacerbated in the first and third stages by the necessity for science and policy to work together. Difficulties are exacerbated in the second stage by the necessity of different scientific disciplines to cooperate. The European Forum on Integrated Environmental Assessment is an initiative to improve scientific quality and policy-relevance of IEA, by organizing two series of workshops, one looking in detail at current and desired scientific practices, the other reviewing current and establishing further applications of IEA to environmental issues in Europe.

Neither the costs nor the benefits of adaptation to climate change have been systematically studied so far. This paper discusses the extent to which the vast body of literature on climate change impacts can provide insights into the scope and likely cost of adaptation. The ways in which the impacts literature deals with adaptation can be grouped into four categories: no adaptation, arbitrary adaptation, observed adaptation (analogues), and modeled adaptation (optimization). All four cases are characterized by the simple assumptions made about the mechanisms of adaptation. No or only scant attention is paid to the process of adapting to a new climate. Adaptation analysis has to acknowledge that people will be neither dumb nor brilliant at adapting. They are likely to see the need for change, but may be constrained in their ability to adept or in their comprehension of the permanence and direction of change.

Knowledge-based or top-down influences on primary visual cortex (area V1) are believed to originate from information conveyed by extrastriate feedback axon connections. Understanding how this information is communicated to area V1 neurons relies in part on clucidating the quantitative as well as the qualitative nature of extrastriate pathway connectivity. A quantitative analysis of the connectivity based on anatomical data regarding the feedback pathway from extrastriate area V2 to area V1 in macaque monkey suggests (i) a total of around ten million or more area V2 axons project to area V1; (ii) the mean number of synaptic inputs from area V2 per upper-layer pyramidal cell in area V1 is less than 6% of all excitatory inputs; and (iii) the mean degree of convergence of area V2 afferents may be high, perhaps more than 100 afferent axons per cell. These results are consistent with empirical observations of the density of radial myelinated axons present in the upper layers in macaque area V1 and the proportion of excitatory extrastriate feedback synaptic inputs onto upper-layer neurons in rat visual cortex. Thus, in primate area V1, extrastriate feedback synapses onto upper-layer cells may, like geniculocortical afferent synapses onto layer IVC neurons, form only a small percentage of the total excitatory synaptic input.

For Carr, the contrast between utopians and realists was between ‘those who regard politics as a function of ethics and those who regard ethics as a function of politics’. In other words, can we direct society in benevolent directions, perhaps to a utopia, or do we take what we are given and try to rationalize this into some form of moral acceptability? In the context of International Relations, the utopian aspires to a world without war and where power is not the primary determinant of relationships. The realist is more sceptical. Broadly, the realist stresses the constraints in life; the utopian stresses the opportunities. At this level, they are not social theories but temperamental attitudes.

Writing originally in 1939, Carr regarded the realists as those who understood the significance of power in the international scene and whose voices had been neglected in the interwar years. The utopians espoused a set of disparate views prevalent at that time linked by their neglect of power. Carr held these utopian positions to be impractical and dangerous. My aim in this article is to look at some versions of realism and some of utopianism, to see how they have developed today into modern variants. I ask how relevant are these traditions, if traditions they be, to the present world.

Maggie Günsberg examines the poetica and poesia of Tasso in the context of the historical and cultural climate in which he lived. His epic theory is explored from the point of view of the three rhetorical faculties current in sixteenth-century poetics: inventio, dispositio and elocutio. His discussion of dispositio reveals a fascinating similarity with ideas on art expressed by the Russian Formalists in the 1920s, a coincidence that can be attributed to the lasting influence of Aristotelian writings on plot. In her analysis of the Gerusalemme liberata, Dr Günsberg draws on methodologies based on Freud, Lacan and the ideology of body language.

Basque is the only surviving pre-Indo-European language in western Europe, and it is typologically very different from its Indo-European neighbors. Consequently, both genetic and typological maps of European languages invariably show the Basque-speaking region as a distinctively colored blob at the western end of the Pyrenees.

Typologically, Basque is a rather well-behaved SOV language with almost all of the textbook characteristics of such languages: verb-final order, preposed modifiers, an abundance of non-finite verb forms, a rich case system, a highly regular agglutinating morphology with few alternations, an absence of prefixes, and so on. Phonologically, the language is not strikingly different from its neighbors except perhaps in the comparative rarity of alternations in its inflectional morphology.

In this article, I want to consider the typological position of Basque from an explicitly historical point of view. In particular, I want to examine the degree to which Basque has undergone typological assimilation to its Indo-European neighbors during the last two thousand years or so. For the phonology, this is easier to do than one might have expected, since we possess a secure reconstruction of the phonology of the Pre-Basque of the Roman period. With morphology and syntax, however, we are heavily constrained by the absence of substantial Basque texts earlier than the sixteenth century, though there are nonetheless some interesting observations to be made and several intriguing hypotheses to consider. Finally, at the lexical level the massive influence of Indo-European languages during two thousand years or more is all too evident, though typological points of interest are few and largely confined to the modern period.

The history of attempts to explain the name of London is charted, and it is concluded that none of them succeeds in making any headway with the problem. A tentative new solution is proposed which explains it as a probably Celtic place-name derived from a Celticized river-name originally forming part of the Old European stratum of European toponymy, in the sense established by Hans Krahe. Topographical arguments are used to support the proposal, as well as arguments from pre-English naming patterns for rivers and their estuaries. The proposed etymology also succeeds in accounting for the Middle Welsh name of the city, Llundein, without any of the special pleading associated with current explanations.

Internal_Co_Author2 = Young A

A reaction between [60]fullerene and terbium(IV) fluoride is shown to be a new example of the thermally induced disruption of the fullerene skeleton. "Hyperfluorination" occurs at the elevated temperature (350 degrees C) thereby producing species C60Fx (x > 60) The fluorination products were characterized by mass spectrometry and IR spectroscopy methods.

This research note explores the different meanings attached to the idea and experience of a fast pace of life. Based on material from the Mass-Observation Archive it argues that control over time is indicative of gender difference and that while largely the product of men and women's different positions vis-a-vis the labour market, there are also unconscious associations around gender and time which affect how successfully each sex manages to control time. Managing their time, like `reconciling' home and work, is felt to be harder for women than men because they are subject to the simultaneous but contradictory expectations to be both time-conscious and time-less. As a result, they tend to see a fast pace of life less positively than men.

The crystal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis have been extensively studied because of their pesticidal properties and their high natural levels of production. The increasingly rapid characterization of new crystal protein genes, triggered by an effort to discover proteins with new pesticidal properties, has resulted in a variety of sequences and activities that no longer,fit the original nomenclature system proposed tn 1989. Bacillus thuringiensis pesticidal crystal protein (Cly and Cyt) nomenclature was initially based on insecticidal activity for the primary ranking criterion. Many exceptions to this systematic arrangement have become apparent, however; making the nomenclature system inconsistent. Additionally, the original nomenclature, with foul activity-based primary ranks for 13 genes, did not anticipate the current 73 holotype sequences that form many more than the original four subgroups. A new nomenclature, based on hierarchical clustering using amino acid sequence identity, is proposed. Roman numeral have been exchanged for Arabic numerals in the primary rank (e.g., Cry1Aa) to better accommodate the large number of expected new sequences. In this proposal, 133 crystal proteins comprising 24 primary ranks are systematically arranged.

With the recent acceleration of the integration process of the European Union there has been a rise in political parties expressing either scepticism or outright criticism of the nature of the integration process. Using a four-fold differentiation between single issue, protest, established parties and factions within parties, the first part of the article presents an overview of Euroscepticism within EU member states and Norway. This reveals the diversity of sources of Euroscepticism both in ideology and in the types of parties that are Eurosceptical but with a preponderance of protest parties taking Eurosceptical positions. The second part of the article is an attempt to map Euroscepticism in West European party systems through a consideration of ideology and party position in the party system. The conclusions are that Euroscepticism is mainly limited to parties on the periphery of their party system and is often there used as an issue that differentiates those parties from the more established parties which are only likely to express Euroscepticism through factions. Party based Euroscepticism is therefore both largely dependent on domestic contextual factors and a useful issue to map emergent domestic political constellations.

We present a full characterization of the phase transition in U(1) scalar field theory and of the associated vortex string thermodynamics in 3D. We show that phase transitions in the string densities exist and measure their critical exponents, both for the long string and the short loops. Evidence for a natural separation between these two string populations is presented. In particular, our results strongly indicate that an infinite string population will only exist above the critical temperature. Canonical initial conditions for cosmic string evolution are shown to correspond to the infinite temperature limit of the theory.

This award-winning multi-volume series is dedicated to making literature and its creators better understood and more accessible to students and interested readers, while satisfying the standards of librarians, teachers and scholars. Dictionary of Literary Biography provides reliable information in an easily comprehensible format, while placing writers in the larger perspective of literary history.

Dictionary of Literary Biography systematically presents career biographies and criticism of writers from all eras and all genres through volumes dedicated to specific types of literature and time periods.

Orchis militaris L. underwent a catastrophic decline in range and plant numbers in the British Isles around the end of the nineteenth century, and was long thought to be nationally extinct. A small number of colonies have been discovered since then, including one in Buckinghamshire, which has been recorded annually almost every year since its discovery in 1947. This paper presents an analysis of the demography and behaviour of this population using census data which have been collected annually from 1977 to 1995. Yew trees which shaded the site occupied by the orchids were removed in 1984 and 1989, and the growth of the herb layer has been strongly constrained by active management since 1989. Since the start of this period of intensive management, the annual gains and losses of plants in the population have become more pronounced, but in most years there has been a net gain in the number of plants. The number and proportion of the emergent plants which flower each year has increased considerably since 1986, and the age structure, which was dominated by older plants prior to 1984, has since become dominated by younger plants, reflecting the increased rate of recruitment and lack of a corresponding increase in mortality. Analyses are presented to show changes in behaviour in consecutive years between the pre-1984 and post-1986 management eras.

We introduce the notion of strongly concatenable process as a refinement of concatenable processes (Degano et al. 1996), which can be expressed axiomatically via a functor [script Q](_) from the category of Petri nets to an appropriate category of symmetric strict monoidal categories, in the precise sense that, for each net N, the strongly concatenable processes of N are isomorphic to the arrows of [script Q](N). In addition, we identify a coreflection right adjoint to [script Q](_) and characterize its replete image, thus yielding an axiomatization of the category of net computations.

Background: The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae uses tow mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascades, the Hog1p and the Mpk1p pathways, to signal responses to hypertonic and hypotonic stress, respectively. Mammalian cells and the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe have functional homologues of Hog1p - p38/RK/CSBP and Sty1 - which, unlike Hog1p, also mediate other responses. We have investigated the involvement of S. pombe MAP kinase pathways in signalling a newly described response to osmotic stress - that of vacuole fusion and fission. Results: When S. pombe is placed into water, its vacuoles rapidly fuse into larger structures enclosing a greater proportion of the cell's volume. Under some conditions, its vacuoles can slowly fragment in response to salt. Fission requires the Sty1 pathway an also Pmk1, the homologue of S. cerevisiae Mpk1p. Fusion requires Pmk1, Ypt7 - the homologue of a protein involved in S. cerevisiae vacuole fusion - and part of the Sty1 pathway, although Sty1 phosphorylation is unaffected by hypotonic conditions. Conclusions: Vacuole fusion and fission appear to be homeostatic mechanisms that restore the concentration of the cytosol. Vacuole fusion, like stimulated secretion in higher eukaryotes, is a rapid a specific process of membrane fusion in response to an external stimulus. The Sty1 pathway, in addition to its role in responding to hypertonic stress, is required at a basal level for the expression of factors required to respond to hypotonic stress - a mechanism that may allow the cell use a common pathway for different responses.

From Jan 1, 1998, new medicines marketed in more than one EU country have to be licensed in one of two ways. First, the EU's mutual recognition procedure enables manufacturers to seek simultaneous marketing authorisation in concerned member states (CMSs; see panel for explanation of abbreviations), provided that they already have marketing authorisation for that drug in at least one member state, known as the RMS. Under this procedure, the CMSs are encouraged to recognise the marketing authorisation of the RMS. However, if they do not, the matter is referred to the European Commission's scientific advisory body, the CPMP, for arbitration. If the CPMP's advice is accepted by the Commission it is binding on the CMSs and the RMS.

How do teachers assess the ordinary classroom work of young children? * How do pupils understand and respond to that assessment - does it help or hinder their development? * How can classroom assessment be developed to be more effective in assisting the learning process? This book brings together various perspectives from the fields of assessment policy development, theories of learning and the sociology of the classroom. The book explores how the assessment of young children is carried out in classrooms and with what consequences for their understanding of schooling and the development of their learning in particular subject areas. The book is based on extensive video and audio tape recordings of classroom assessment 'incidents' along with interviews of teachers and pupils about the process of assessment.

The relationship between State immunity and diplomatic immunity has always been a rather complex one. The two concepts undoubtedly have a common juridical background in the form of the concepts of sovereignty, independence and dignity.1 On the other hand, recent developments in both fields have seen a move towards a more functional-based approach. Thus, in relation to diplomatic immunity, the dominant theoretical basis is that of functional necessity.2 As regards State immunity, recent developments in both international law3 and, more particularly, in UK law4, from absolute to restrictive State immunity, have resulted in a more functionally orientated approach, that is, a shift of emphasis in matters of State immunity from immunity ratione personae to immunity ratione materiae.5 Now two recent cases in the United Kingdom have raised the possibility that, in the case of diplomats at least, the two concepts may be combined to provide a double immunity for diplomatic agents against civil suit. More controversially, the cases have raised the possibility of a third type of protection based upon immunity ratione personae in what could be said to amount to a modified act of State doctrine. The cases in question are Propend Finance Pty Ltd. v. Alan Sing and The Commissioner of the Australian Federal Police6 and Re P (Diplomatic Immunity: Jurisdiction).7

Catherine Higgs, THE GHOST OF EQUALITY: THE PUBLIC LIVES OF D. D. T. JABAVU OF SOUTH AFRICA, 1885–1959, Ohio: Ohio University Press and Cape Town: David Philip and Mayibuye Books, 1997, xiii + 276 pp., npl.

A cultural studies textbook that deals with issues of methodology, as well as mapping out the history and theories and ideas in cultural studies. The book examines the work of Raymond Williams, Lacan and Hoggart, among Others, And Explores Notions Of Subculture, Psychoanalysis, Marxist thought, narrative, autobiography, fiction, subjectivity, language, history and representation. The book focuses on the past, present and future of cultural studies, with the aim of providing readers with a clear overview of the central ideas within the area, developing current debates and possible future avenues.

The paper relates literature on formative assessment to relevant literature in the field of achievement motivation and then subjects both to scrutiny by analysing video transcript data of how teachers and students interact in the context of routine assessment ''events.'' The paper represents a critique of approaches to formative assessment where the complexity of the situation is minimized and interaction is seen in purely cognitive terms. It suggests that an attempt to understand formative assessment must involve a critical combination and co-ordination of insights derived from a number of psychological and sociological standpoints, none of which by themselves provide a sufficient basis for analysis, and that such considerations need to be contextualized in the actual social setting of the classroom.

It is well-known that AB diblock copolymers aggregate to form micelles in solvents which are selective for either the A block or the B block.1-5 Provided that the block ratio is not too asymmetric, it is also possible to obtain micelles or reverse (inverted) micelles from the same block copolymer by choosing appropriate selective solvents. For example, Oranli and co-workers reported6 that styrene−butadiene diblock copolymers can form micelles with either polystyrene cores (in n-alkanes) or polybutadiene cores (in DMF or MEK, respectively). Similarly, it is well-known that small molecule surfactants can form micelles or reverse micelles in aqueous and nonaqueous media, respectively. However, as far as we are aware, there are no literature examples of block copolymers or surfactants which are capable of forming both micelles (A block in core) and reverse micelles (B block in core) solely in aqueous media. At first sight this might appear impossible, but in this paper we describe a novel water-soluble AB diblock copolymer which exhibits this highly unusual behavior at room temperature at around neutral pH (see Figure 1). The critical parameters which affect the solvency and, hence, govern the formation of micelles or reverse micelles are the solution pH, electrolyte concentration, temperature, and block symmetry.

Novel and uniform β-Sn nanowires surrounded by graphitic material (fully filled tubes; 40–50% of the overall material, length ≤2 μm; ≤100 nm o.d.) are produced by passage of a current between graphite rods immersed in molten mixtures of LiCl and SnCl2 under argon at 600°C. Prolonged electron beam irradiation (under HRTEM) of the nanowires leads to axial growth, re-orientations and allied dynamic transformations. The technique may be applied to other soft metals in order to generate filled nanotubes.

Andrew Marvell brings together ten recent and critically informed essays by leading scholars on one of the most challenging and important seventeenth-century poets. The essays examine Marvell's poems, from lyrics, such as 'To His Coy Mistress' and 'The Nymph Complaining for the Death of her Fawn', to celebrations of Cromwell and Republican Civil War culture and his biting Restoration satires. Representing the most significant critical trends in Marvell criticism over the last twenty years, the essays and the authoritative editorial work provide an excellent introduction to Marvell's work. Students of Renaissance and seventeenth-century literature, English Civil War writing, and seventeenth-century social and cultural history will find this collection a useful guide to helping them appreciate and understand Marvell's poetry

The Lived Body takes a fresh look at the notion of human embodiment and provides an ideal textbook for undergraduates on the growing number of courses on the sociology of the body. The authors propose a new approach - an 'Embodied Sociology' - one which makes embodiment central rather than peripheral. They critically examine the dualist legacies of the past, assessing the ideas of a range of key thinkers, from Marx to Freud, Foucault to Giddens, Deleuze to Guattari and Irigary to Grosz, in terms of the bodily themes and issues they address. They also explore new areas of research, including the 'fate' of embodiment in late modernity, sex, gender, medical technology and the body, the sociology of emotions, pain, sleep and artistic representations of the body. The Lived Body will provide students and researchers in medical sociology, health sciences, cultural studies and philosophy with clear, accessible coverage of the major theories and debates in the sociology of the body and a challenging new way of thinking

Women's participation in formal education continues to be lower than that of men. This article examines a range of reasons for the persistence of this gender gap, and also why the education provided in schools has generally had little impact on women's status in society.

Firm-specific technological competencies help explain why firms are different, how they change over time, and whether or not they are capable of remaining competitive. Data on more than 400 of the world's largest firms show that their technological competencies have the following characteristics:

1.
1. They are typically multi-field, and becoming more so over time, with competencies ranging beyond their product range, in technical fields outside their ‘distinctive core’.
2.
2. They are highly stable and differentiated, with both the technology profile and the directions of localised search strongly influenced by firms' principal products.
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3. The rate of search is influenced by both the firm's principal products, and the conditions in its home country. However, considerable unexplained variance suggests scope for managerial choice.These findings confirm the importance of complexity and path dependency in the accumulation of firm-specific technological competencies, and show that managers are heavily constrained in the directions of their technological search. They also show the limits of the notion of competition through variety, given that the same specific field of technological competence is often essential to the development of a range of possible product configurations. Technological imperatives still exist.

We show that for any compact set , if and only if , , and being the closed lamination convex hull, quasiconvex hull and convex hull of respectively. When , we show that if and only if , where is the polyconvex hull of . We give some estimates of these relations by using quasiconvexifications of distance functions.

Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) is genetically diverse, yet it is also morphologically distinct from its wild relatives. These two observations are somewhat contradictory: the first observation is consistent with a large historical population size for maize, but the latter observation is consistent with strong, diversity-limiting selection during maize domestication. In this study, we sampled sequence diversity, coupled with simulations of the coalescent process, to study the dynamics of a population bottleneck during the domestication of maize. To do this, we determined the DNA sequence of a 1,400-bp region of the Adh1 locus from 19 individuals representing maize, its presumed progenitor (Z. mays ssp. parviglumis), and a more distant relative (Zea luxurians). The sequence data were used to guide coalescent simulations of population bottlenecks associated with domestication. Our study confirms high genetic diversity in maize¿maize contains 75% of the variation found in its progenitor and is more diverse than its wild relative, Z. luxurians¿but it also suggests that sequence diversity in maize can be explained by a bottleneck of short duration and very small size. For example, the breadth of genetic diversity in maize is consistent with a founding population of only 20 individuals when the domestication event is 10 generations in length.

The Polish parliamentary election of September 1997 demonstrated the further consolidation of democracy in the years since the fall of communist rule. On a fairly low poll, the governing centre-left coalition was defeated by a new coalition of parties and groupings from the previously deeply fragmented right. The number of parties and groupings was significantly down on previous elections, with only five winning parliamentary seats. The winner was Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS), which ran a very effective campaign, providing a clear focus for opposition to the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), a communist-successor formation. AWS won by invoking the idea of 'completing the Solidarity revolution' interrupted in the leftward swing of 1993 and competing against a misconceived and complacent campaign by the SLD whose coalition partner, the Polish Peasant Party (PSL), was punished for failing to 'deliver' to its core rural electorate. The election also halted the decline of the liberal Freedom Union (UW) following a dynamic, presidential-style campaign focusing on its leader and author of the post-communist reforms, Leszek Balcerowicz.

Under some circumstances, Diptera and Hymenoptera learn visual shapes retinotopically, so that they only recognize the shape when it is viewed by the same region of retina that was exposed to it during learning1,2. One use of such retinotopically stored views is in guiding an insect's path to a familiar site3, 4, 5. Because the retinal image of an object changes with viewing distance and (sometimes) direction, a single stored view may be insufficient to guide an insect from start to goal. Little, however, is known about the number of views that insects store. Here we show that wood ants take several 'snapshots' of a familiar beacon from different vantage points. An ant leaving a newly discovered food source at the base of a landmark performs a tortuous walk back to its nest during which it periodically turns back and faces the landmark. The ant, on revisiting the familiar landmark, holds the edges of the landmark's image steady at several discrete positions on its retina. These preferred retinal positions tend to match the positions of landmark edges that the ant captured during its preceding 'learning walks'.

A discussion of the contribution and methods of the Annales School of Historians to modern historiography.

This essay discusses aspects of style, expression and imagination from the standpoint of their teachability. The concept of "finding a voice" is explored and elucidated as "the full imaginative expression of a bounded individuality". Writing blocks are discussed, using psychoanalytic concepts of "transfer" and "resistance".

It is important for an optical pattern recognition filter to produce a localized correlation response without significant sidelobe structure. This paper notes, and investigates further, the high degree of robustness of the correlation response of a wideband filter in the face of severe frequency domain modulus disruption. The phenomenon is demonstrated by simulation, and analysis is presented to explain the observations. This property may be of value in filter design by allowing the relaxation of frequency domain constraints in the knowledge that correlation peak structure will not drastically deteriorate.

The Council on Foreign Relations in New York is known throughout the world both as a leading centre for the study of international affairs and as having an influential voice in current debates on the future global role of the United States. Since the First World War the Council has promoted these goals through organizing working groups, sponsoring specialized monographs, and publishing a number of journals and yearbooks. The Council has now sponsored the publication of a multivolume encyclopaedic dictionary of American foreign relations. Michael Dunne’s review of these four volumes concentrates on the broad themes which run through the many hundreds of essays, and asks whether the study of the American diplomatic past can help us to understand the special features of the course and conduct of US foreign relations.

The history of the rural areas during the Second World War is virtually unstudied. There is some work on agriculture and agricultural policies, but the extent to which these rely on K.A.H.Murray's ‘official’ history, published in 1955, is testimony both to the quality of Murray's work and the general paucity of more recent published research. Moving away from the directly official, or economic history, we move into the field of memoir and reminiscence. Good as many of these are, they obviously seldom make any attempt at sustained analysis. Crucially, the rural areas have been left out of accounts of the social history of the war, such as Angus Calder's magisterial studyThe People's War, first published in 1971.

Internal_Co_Author1 = S Li

This paper is concerned with the discretization of an hyperbolic system of conservation laws with stiff relaxation source terms that model a two-phase fluid flow. It is shown both theoretically and numerically that the usual operator splitting method poorly computes the propagation of sound waves in a two-phase medium. We propose a new operator splitting, based on physical considerations. This numerical method gives very good results regarding both the propagation velocity and the attenuation coefficient of sound waves in a two-phase medium.

[60]Fullerene derivatives, C60Ar5Cl (Ar = Ph or 4-FC6H4), react with AlCl3 in solution at room temperature to form Cs symmetrical pentaaryl[60]fullerene carbocations, C60(Ar)5+.

The chemical composition of galled and ungalled plant tissue was compared in a series of experiments. Gall and adjacent plant tissue was analysed for 20 species of gall-former on 11 different plant species. There were clear differences between galled and ungalled tissue in levels of nutrients and secondary compounds. Gall tissue generally contained lower levels of nitrogen and higher levels of phenolic compounds than ungalled plant tissue. The gall tissue produced by the same plant in response to different species of gall-former differed in chemical composition, as did the gall-tissue from young and mature galls of the same species. The chemical differences between gall and plant tissues were studied in more detail in two field manipulations. Firstly, the seasonal changes in phenolic biosynthesis in Pontania proxima and P. pedunculi (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) gall tissue were compared to those of their host plants, Salix alba and S. caprea. In both types of gall tissue, phenolic levels declined as the season progressed, but levels in the surrounding plant tissue increased. When the gall insects were killed with insecticide, phenolic levels in the galled tissue dropped to the same level as those in adjacent plant tissue. Secondly, the density of Cynips divisa (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) galls on Quercus robur leaves was reduced by removing half the galls present, either those from the central region of the leaf or those from the edge. Decreasing gall density increased the size of the remaining galls and the weight of the insects, but these effects were most marked when the galls remaining were growing centrally on the leaf, i.e. when the galls from the edge had been removed. Decreasing gall density increased the nitrogen content of the remaining galls, again to a greater extent in galls growing centrally on the leaf. The results of these studies suggest that the levels of nutrients and secondary compounds in gall tissue are usually markedly different to those of surrounding plant tissue, and that gall-formers may produce species-specific and temporally variable changes in the chemical composition of gall tissue.

Overwhelming evidence links openness and economic growth. In recent years many developing countries have attempted to liberalize their trade and investment regimes, mostly through autonomous unilateral liberalization. At the same time, a growing number of governments have begun to explore and participate in regional trading agreements. The agreements grant reciprocal trade preferences to participating countries, resulting in discrimination against nonmembers. The causes and consequences of regional integration have given rise to an extensive and vigorous debate among both scholars and policymakers. However, the quality of this debate has been seriously hampered by the absence of clear analytical models and empirical evidence on many of the factors under discussion. Few of the recent arguments in favor of regional integration arrangements have been satisfactorily formalized or tested. To address some of these issues, a World Bank research program focuses on new and developing country aspects of regionalism. The program explores lacunae in the traditional static analysis of regional integration arrangements; addresses the dynamic effects of integration, the economics of deep integration, and the politics and political economy of regional integration arrangements; and compares regionalism with multilateralism. The articles in this symposium address the topics of dynamics, politics, and political economy in regional integration agreements.

The effect of the growth interruption time during the growth of InGaAs/InAlAs quantum well structures is shown to have a significant effect on both the interband transitions, as determined by photoreflectance, and the electrical properties of the as-grown structure. The results show that, for increasing growth interruption time, the quantum well heterointerfaces become more abrupt and the carrier mobility increases, thereby demonstrating that long interruption times are preferable for the growth of high quality rectangular quantum well structures.

An examination of whether or not the nature of consciousness and human identify can be explained using scientific methodology and neurobiological technology. Until recently, the vast complexity of the brain has kept researchers from tackling the thorny topic of consciousness. But now, new imaging techniques are revealing many of the brain's mysteries to neuroscientists, while researchers in the field of artificial intelligence believe they soon might replicate consciousness with silicon and circuitry. Meanwhile, philosophers take issue with this scientific methodology, questioning whether a reductionist approach can really solve the holistic relationship between mind and brain. These approaches are debated in Consciousness and Human Identity by leading figures from such diverse fields as psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, cognitive science, theology, and artificial intelligence. Each contributor brings the insights of their field of study to the debate. Contributors include John Searle, Margaret Boden, Steven Rose, and Olaf Sporns. John Cornwell, the editor, is the former features editor of the Observer, a frequent contributor to the Sunday Times, and currently runs The Science and Human Dimension Project at Jesus College. The project's aims is to stimulate debate between science and the arts and humanities.

An empirical potential energy function, comprising two- and three-body terms, has been derived for platinum and palladium, by fitting parameters to the phonon dispersion curves, elastic constants, lattice energy and lattice distance of the face-centred-cubic (fcc) solid, and the vacancy formation energy. These potentials reproduce the fcc strutural data and the experimetal energies and relaxation of the (111), (110) and (100) surfaces of fee Pt and Pd, to a high degree of accuracy, and correctly predicts the relaxation, pairing and buckling of the 1 × 2 reconstruction of the (110) Pt surface.

Local density-functional total-energy calculations reveal a model for quasispherical nested fullerenes that corresponds to a local minimum on the carbon energy surface and involves a change in ring statistics. The model scales well with fullerene size, is consistent with a recent sputtering mechanism for their formation, and simulated high-resolution TEM images coincide with experimental observations. The calculations yield interlayer energies in the 11¿15 meV/atom range for two C840 molecules and indicate that these quasispherical C840 molecules should be semiconducting with a very small gap.

Mathematics is a central part of the school curriculum. Alongside studies in the dominant language of a society, success and failure in the discipline play an important role in the distribution of opportunities to children and young people. Until fairly recently, in England and elsewhere. success in primary school mathematics was achieved by demonstrating a capacity to memorize, reproduce and use relatively simple algorithms. However, in recent years, there has been considerable change in primary school mathematics with an increasing stress being laid, at least rhetorically, on understanding, investigation and the application of mathematics in realistic settings. It seems likely that such changes, in so far as they affect the form and content of National Curriculum assessment, will produce changes in who succeeds and who fails, i.e. in selective processes within schooling. The paper draws on preliminary results from an ESRC project which is examining National Curriculum assessment in mathematics for 10-11 and 13-14 year-old children in relation to class, gender and ability. The paper examines the ways in which children from different sociocultural backgrounds approach assessment items which embed mathematics in supposedly realistic contexts. Early data from the Key Stage 2 sample of 10-11 year olds will be presented which shows that there does seem be a social class effect in the response of children to realistic items - one which leads to some working class children failing to demonstrate competences they have. The paper uses quantitative and qualitative methods, relating its findings to Basil Bernstein's account of sociocultural codes - in particular his theorizing of the social distribution of recognition and realization rules for reading educational contexts - and to Bourdieu's theorizing of habitus

This article provides a review and methodological critique of recent influential "first-generation" government-sponsored studies seeking to derive monetary values for the environmental effects of electricity supply technologies. It is observed that environmental valuation suffers from many of the general methodological difficulties faced by other quantitative appraisal techniques. In addition, environmental valuation is found to present its own specific methodological difficulties and theoretical problems. The practical policy efficacy of environmental results is called into question. It is concluded that there exist alternative approaches to the social appraisal of the environmental impacts of generating technologies that warrant greater attention to further development than does environmental valuation.

a-Tectorin is one of the major noncollagenous components of the mammalian tectorial membrane in the inner ear. We have mapped the gene encoding a-tectorin to mouse chromosome 9 and human chromosome 11 in a known region of conserved synteny. Human YAC clones containing a-tectorin have been identified, demonstrating physical linkage to the anonymous marker D11S925. This places a-tectorin within the genetic interval that contains both the human nonsyndromic autosomal dominant deafness DFNA12 and the proximal limit of a subset of deletions within Jacobsen syndrome. Thus both DFNA12 and the hearing loss in some cases of Jacobsen syndrome may be due to haploinsufficiency for TECTA.

This paper examines problems in defining racial terminology in an age of international lexicography through a survey of South African English (SAfE) racial and ethnic terminology and its representation in English dictionaries used in South Africa. Rather than reflecting past apartheid attitudes and racial definitions, dictionaries for the South African public tend to ignore the most common South African senses of racial labels [terms]. The deficits and biases in these dictionaries are surveyed with an eye to the changing roles of dictionaries, English, and racial classification in South Africa. [NB: In this paper, Label can mean (1) 'word, as for social group' (eg European); (2) 'diasystemic label' (eg SAfE; derog).]

A major new assessment of European technology policy set in the context of the wider political economy of contemporary Europe. The book focuses centrally on collaborative research programmes, such as the EU's Framework programme and the intergovernmental EUREKA programme, and their contribution to European technological competitiveness. Based on new and original research, Technology Policy in the European Union provides definitive coverage of an increasingly important, expensive and politicised area of public policy

This article describes the first detailed analysis of mitochondrial electron transfer and oxidative phosphorylation in the pathogenic filamentous fungus, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, While oxygen consumption was cyanide insensitive, inhibition occurred following treatment with complex III inhibitors and the alternative oxidase inhibitor, salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM). Similarly, maintenance of a Delta psi across the mitochondrial inner membrane was unaffected by cyanide but sensitive to antimycin A and SHAM when succinate was added as the respiratory substrate. As a result, ATP synthesis through complex V was demonstrated to be sensitive to these two inhibitors but not to cyanide, Analysis of the cytochrome content of mitochondria indicated the presence of those cytochromes normally associated with electron transport in eukaryotic mitochondria together with a third, b-type heme, exhibiting a dithionite-reduced absorbance maxima at 560 nm and not associated with complex III. Antibodies raised to plant alternative oxidase detected the presence of both the monomeric and dimeric forms of this oxidase, Overall this study demonstrates that a novel respiratory chain utilizing the terminal oxidases, cytochrome c oxidase and alternative oxidase, are present and constitutively active in electron transfer in G. graminis tritici, These results are discussed in relation to current understanding of fungal electron transfer and to the possible contribution of alternative redox centers in ATP synthesis

In vivo ubiquinone (UQ) reduction levels were measured during the development of the inflorescences of Arum macolatum and Amorphophallus krausei. Thermogenesis in A. maculatum spadices appeared not to be confined to a single developmental stage, but occurred during various stages. The UQ pool in both A. maculatum and A. krausei appendices was approximately 90% reduced during thermogenesis. Respiratory characteristics of isolated appendix mitochondria did not change in the period around thermogenesis. Apparently, synthesis of the required enzyme capacity is regulated via a coarse control upon which a fine control of metabolism that regulates the onset of thermogenesis is imposed.

Review of: Brown, B., 1996. 'The Material Unconscious: American Amusement, Stephen Crane and the Economies of Play'. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press.

The arrest of Rosa Parks on 1 December 1955 provided the spark which ignited the long smouldering resentments of black Montgomerians. For 381 days they waged a boycott of the city bus lines, frustrating the opposition of white authorities and financially crippling the local transit company. More profoundly it resulted in a Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation on public transportation. Equally momentous was the emergence of the man who would serve as the spiritual figurehead of the civil rights movement: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

In the wake of the Montgomery bus boycott, one national black newspaper acclaimed King as “Alabama's Modern Moses.” Since the darkest days of slavery African-Americans had sought spiritual salvation by comparing their own condition to that of God's Chosen People, the Israelites of the Old Testament. Throughout their years of enslavement they prayed for the Moses who would deliver them from their suffering unto the Promised Land. During the boycott, the black citizens of Montgomery had similarly sustained their morale by singing the old slave spirituals, raising their voices at the nightly mass meetings in rousing renditions of “Go Down Moses, Way Down in Egypt Land.” “As sure as Moses got the children of Israel across the Red Sea,” King exhorted the black community, “we can stick together and win.” Others too drew the analogy between the historical experience of Jews and the contemporary predicament of African-Americans. Looking back on the boycott, white liberal activist Virginia Durr evoked the spectre of Nazi Germany in describing the strength of racist opposition.

This paper considers mobility in and explanation of the position of children in the distribution of ability at different ages. Using the sub-samples of the BCS Cohort, it is found that 42 month ability rank provides a fairly stable guide to position in the distribution at age ten and that for girls, even the 22 month score is fairly stable. The paper then considers the question of the association of ability rank with the social background of children. It is found that children of women with degrees are substantially higher in the distribution than other children even at 22 months. By 42 months SES is also important, becoming still more important by age ten. A forecast equation for household income is developed. This is also found to be strongly associated with pre-school ability rank.

Catalogue of international group show Claustrophobia, an exhibition held at the IKON Gallery from 6 June to 2 Aug. 1998 and travelling thereafter throughout Great Britain.

A theoretical study of short period AlGaAs-GaAs diffused quantum-well (QW) absorption modulators operated by using surface acoustic waves (SAWs) is carried out in this paper. The as-grown QW structure is optimized and interdiffusion is used to fine tune the modulation performance. The results show that a stack of QWs can be developed at the top surface of the modulator to utilize the steep potential induced by SAWs. The optimized structure can also produce a large absorption change and thus a fast modulation speed for the same modulation depth. In comparison to previous results, the required surface acoustic wave has a longer wavelength and a lower power so that the fabrication of the interdigital transducer can be simplified. In addition, the use of interdiffusion can provide an useful fine adjustment to the operating wavelength, further enhancement of the modulation depth and an improvement in chirping with the only drawback of an increased absorption loss.

Empirical potential energy functions, comprising two- and three-body terms, have been derived for copper, silver and gold. These potentials reproduce the experimental energies and relaxations of the (111), (110) and (100) surfaces of the fcc solid, to a high degree of accuracy and correctly predict the 1 × 2 reconstruction of the (110) surface of gold.

Excitable cells use ion channels to tailor their biophysical properties to the functional demands made upon them1. During development, these demands may alter considerably, often associated with a change in the cells' complement of ion channels2-4. Here we present evidence for such a change in inner hair cells, the primary sensory receptors in the mammalian cochlea. In mice, responses to sound can first be recorded from the auditory nerve and observed behaviourally from 10-12 days after birth; these responses mature rapidly over the next 4 days5-8. Before this time, mouse inner hair cells have slow voltage responses and fire spontaneous and evoked action potentials. During development of auditory responsiveness a large, fast potassium conductance is expressed, greatly speeding up the membrane time constant and preventing action potentials. This change in potassium channel expression turns the inner hair cell from a regenerative, spiking pacemaker into a high-frequency signal transducer

The paramagnetic complex anions [Fe(NS3)Cl]– [NS3 = N(CH2CH2S)33–] and[Fe(NS3)(CO)]– have been prepared and structurally characterised; with FeCl2, [Fe(NS3)(CO)]– gives the structurally characterised, linear, paramagnetic cluster complex [Fe{Fe(NS3)(CO)-S,S′}2].

The exposure of Epstein-Barr virus immortalised B cells (LCLs) to the genotoxic effects of gamma irradiation causes a decreased proliferation of the cells. The early events in this process have been investigated here. The induction of p53 expression correlates with a cell cycle arrest in the G1 and G2/M phases of the cell cycle within 24 h of exposure, The molecular mechanism governing the decreased proliferation appears to involve the induction of the cyclin dependent kinase (cdk) inhibitor p21(CIP1) and its functional association with cdk2, (C) 1998 Federation of European Biochemical Societies.

Both long-wavelength-sensitive (L) and medium-wavelength-sensitive (M) cones contribute to luminance mechanisms in human vision. This means that luminance and chromatic signals may be confounded. We use power spectra from natural images to estimate the magnitude of the corruption of luminance signals encoded by an array of retinal ganglion cells resembling the primate magnocellular neurons. The magnitude of this corruption is dependent on the cone lattice and is most severe where cones form clumps of a single spectral type. We find that chromatic corruption may equal or exceed the amplitude of other sources of noise and so could impose constraints on visual performance and on eye design.

Extent to which first instance sentencers are permitted to consider public opinion when passing sentence.

According to the recorded tradition of the North American Oral History Association, "oral history was established in 1948 as a modern technique for historical documentation when Columbia University historian Allan Nevins began recording the memoirs of persons significant in American life." This essay explores significant issues in oral history, fifty years on. It focuses on four developments that are central to the current concerns of oral historians, drawing on lessons from oral history projects around the world. First, scholars now recognize that interviewing operates within culturally specific systems of communication, so that there is not necessarily a single or universal "right way" to do oral history. Second, new thinking about memory and history has posed new opportunities and dilemmas in the interpretation of oral testimony. Third, an increasing emphasis on the value that remembering has for the narrator has broadened the practice of oral history so that it can be more than a research methodology. Finally, as new technologies expand ways of generating interviews and presenting oral history, they spotlight concerns about how people's memories are used or abused in public representation. This survey offers no definitive conclusions or recommendations; it is instead intended to suggest pointers for continuing debate.

This paper reports an investigation into the changes in the wage distribution in Poland in the first half of the 1990s. We concentrate on the effects of privatization and international trade. We show that the tendency towards increased dispersion in wages halted between 1992 and 1996, despite a rapid expansion in private-sector work. We also show that, during the same period, private-sector workers typically earned less than their statesector counterparts on an hourly basis, and this gap widened. However, if one controls for experience, tenure and size of workplace, then there existed a small positive privatesector premium. On the effects of international trade, we find suggestive circumstantial evidence that the increase in trade with Western Europe raised wages and employment in manufacturing.

The living ring-opening metathesis polymerisation of norbornene monomers bearing amino ester- residues, using the molybdenum initiators Mo(=CHCMe2Ph)(=N¿2,6-i-Pr2C6H3)(OR)2, {R = CMe3, IA, CMe2CF3, IB, CMe(CF3)2, IC}, is reported. The monomers are derived from reactions of exo- and endo- himic anhydrides with the amino ester hydrochlorides of glycine (1), alanine (2) and isoleucine (3). The optically pure monomers derived from 2 and 3 afford optically active polymers whose optical activities are independent of cis content and molecular weight, indicating the absence of a cooperative effect between chiral centres along the chain. The polymers derived from the exo monomers show a cis-trans vinylene dependence upon the ancillary alkoxide ligands of the initiator with IA giving high trans contents and IC giving high cis. The cis/trans content for the endo polymers show relatively little or no dependence upon the initiator. Poly(exo-1) is exceptional in its ability to incorporate various hydrocarbons in the solid state, including hexane and methane.

Construction skills and training needs have changed with the
introduction of new business processes, different forms of
organising production and technical innovation. In the UK,
training provision has failed to adapt fully to the needs of a
modernising industry. Formal training programmes have been
inappropriate in content and inadequate in quantity. Many of them are out of date.

Thematic emphases in this text include the contacts between European women and those outside European frontiers, sexuality and its importance for the construction of gender over the centuries, and the role of women in the great events and movements in European history and the impact of such events on them

Internal_Co_Author1 = PJ Chandler Internal_Co_Author2 = BW Farmery

Songs of Love & Desire is a dramatic presentation of Monteverdi’s 4th Book of Madrigals for five voices. The production employs reflected images and electronic sound treatment to capture the baroque spirit of Monteverdi’s intense and passionate music, placing it in a world of ever-changing sound and vision. Monteverdi’s madrigals trace an erotic narrative from the first flickerings of desire to sex, betrayal and death, employing modes that range from direct address to miniature dramas and third-person narratives. Following Monteverdi’s own narrative of longing and passion, the performance explores a space between reality and illusion that reflects the dissolving boundaries expressed in the madrigals themselves between life and death, presence and absence, self and other.

'Social relation of production' is a key term in Marx's theory of history, for the social relations of production of a society give that society its fundamental character and make it, for example, a capitalist rather than some other kind of society.

The role of motoneurons in central motor pattern generation was investigated in the feeding system of the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis, an important invertebrate model of behavioral rhythm generation. The neuronal network responsible for the three-phase feeding motor program (fictive feeding) has been characterized extensively and divided into populations of central pattern generator (CPG) interneurons, modulatory interneurons, and motoneurons. A previous model of the feeding system considered that the motoneurons were passive followers of CPG interneuronal activity. Here we present new, detailed physiological evidence that motoneurons that innervate the musculature of the feeding apparatus have significant electrotonic motoneuron¿interneuron connections, mainly confined to cells active in the same phase of the feeding cycle (protraction, rasp, or swallow). This suggested that the motoneurons participate in rhythm generation. This was assessed by manipulating firing activity in the motoneurons during maintained fictive feeding rhythms. Experiments showed that motoneurons contribute to the maintenance and phase setting of the feeding rhythm and provide an efficient system for phase-locking muscle activity with central neural activity. These data indicate that the distinction between motoneurons and interneurons in a complex CNS network like that involved in snail feeding is no longer justified and that both cell types are important in motor pattern generation. This is a distributed type of organization likely to be a general characteristic of CNS circuitries that produce rhythmic motor behavior.

A crossover from SN2 to general base catalysed nucleophilic substitution can account for the dichotomous diastereoselectivity observed in DKR reactions of α-haloacyl imidazolidinones. Aprotic nucleophiles (Nu−) react preferentially with the 5S∗,2′R∗ diastereomer via an SN2 mechanism. Conversely, amines (R2NH) generally react preferentially with the 5S∗,2′S∗ diastereomer. General base catalysis via a bifurcated hydrogen bonded assembly accounts for this anomalous stereoselectivity.

In this article, an attempt will be made to gauge the true extent of landlord intimidation in the principality through a detailed examination of the evictions following the 1868 election. Whilst the idea that landlords coerced their tenants at election time was regarded as axiomatic by Victorian radicals, they never produced much hard and fast evidence to support their claims. The 1868 election in Wales, however, is remarkable for having produced just such a detailed account. A well-known Welsh journalist, John Griffith, toured the afflicted counties of Carmarthenshire and Cardiganshire in the winter of 1869-70 and drew up a series of reports which were published by a Liberal newspaper, the Cambria Daily Leader. His reports gave the names and addresses of both the evicted tenant and the evicting landlord, along with details of each case designed to show that the only cause of the eviction notice having been served was the tenant's Liberal vote at the election. What makes this series of reports so valuable, however, is that a Conservative newspaper, the Welshman, reproduced the reports and invited the accused landowners to respond to the charges made against them. The reports and the landowners' replies form a body of contemporary evidence which has not hitherto been examined and presents a unique opportunity to explore both sides of an alleged evictioni campaign in considerable detail. Sbove all, it provides a solid foundation for judging whether the Welsh landlords deserve their harsh historiographical reputation. In order to set the Welsh material in its proper context, the article begins by examining the whole issue of evictions in England, Scotland, and Ireland in the Victorian period. In the second section, the article examines the place of the idea of landlord coercion within the electoral rhetoric of Welsh Liberals. The specific charges made against the landlords in 1869 are then analysed in the context both of the reports prepared by Griffith and of the responses made to them by the landowners. The article concludes that, although there were conditions under which Welsh landlords were prepared to evict tenants for 'political' reasons, the pattern of landlord-tenant relations in the principality was generally good, and that an historiographical revision in line with that undertaken for other parts of the UK is overdue.

Research and development in the German economy is internationalising: recently there has been an increase in outward DFI by German companies relative to the inward DFI of foreign-owned companies in Germany. By examining the long term trends in patents granted in the USA to the world's largest firms between 1969 and 1995, it emerges that Germany is now catching-up with a world-wide trend to interna tionalise technological activaty, and has done this on the basis of its core technological strengths developed historically at a national and corporate level. The research and innovation infrastructure of the economy remains strong, and German companies are locating abroad in the industries which are the most science-based, which are supportive of domestically-based core technologies and in which they hold the strongest competitive position relative to other European firms. German-owned companies retain their dominance of German-located R & D in five key industries—electronics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, metals and motor vehicles—and they have developed technological specialisms clearly focused on the core technologies of these industries, at home and now also abroad.

Bureaucracy and Race: Native Administration in South Africa by
Ivan Evans. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1997. Pp. 403­xiii, £42 cloth.

The work described here concerns situational modeling in the support of dynamic decision making when planning in the driving domain. When resources are constrained, sensing and reasoning can be dynamically prioritised by evaluating which part of an agent’s situational model most needs updating to support the agent’s activities. A probabilistic network approach is used to competatively prioritise modelling requirements.

A study has been performed of the reaction pbar p -> 4K using in-flight antiprotons from 1.1 to 2.0 GeV/c incident momentum interacting with a hydrogen jet target. The reaction is dominated by the production of a pair of phi mesons. The pbar p -> phi phi cross section rises sharply above threshold and then falls continuously as a function of increasing antiproton momentum. The overall magnitude of the cross section exceeds expectations from a simple application of the OZI rule by two orders of magnitude. In a fine scan around the xi/f_J(2230) resonance, no structure is observed. A limit is set for the double branching ratio B(xi -> pbar p) * B(xi -> phi phi) < 6e-5 for a spin 2 resonance of M = 2.235 GeV and Width = 15 MeV.

Polystyrene latexes were synthesized via living free-radical chemistry with 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO) in both alcoholic and aqueous alcoholic media using poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) as a steric stabilizer at 112−130 °C. Genuine dispersion polymerization was only achieved in ethylene glycol or ethylene glycol−water mixtures. In the absence of TEMPO, near-quantitative monomer conversions, high molecular weights, broad molecular weight distributions, and submicrometer-sized latexes were obtained. The addition of TEMPO had a profound effect on the polymerization chemistry: only moderate monomer conversions (as low as 20%, with a maximum conversion of 60% obtained after 71 h) and larger, typically micrometer-sized, latexes were obtained with TEMPO-mediated syntheses. Polydispersities (Mw/Mn's) as low as 1.11 were achieved in the presence of TEMPO, but only relatively low molecular weight polystyrene chains were obtained. All TEMPO-synthesized latexes had spherical particle morphologies and very broad size distributions, as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and disk centrifuge photosedimentometry (DCP), respectively. Surprisingly, high Γ values were calculated for the adsorbed PVP stabilizer, which suggests that it is not located exclusively on the outside of the polystyrene latex particles.

The tectorial membrane is an extracellular matrix of the inner ear that contacts the stereocilia bundles of specialized sensory hair cells. Sound induces movement of these hair cells relative to the tectorial membrane, deflects the stereocilia, and leads to fluctuations in hair-cell membrane potential, transducing sound into electrical signals. a-tectorin is one of the major non-collagenous components of the tectorial membrane. Recently, the gene encoding mouse a-tectorin (Tecta) was mapped to a region of mouse chromosome 9, which shows evolutionary conservation with human chromosome 11q (ref. 3), where linkage was found in two families, one Belgian (DFNA12; ref. 4) and the other, Austrian (DFNA8; unpublished data), with autosomal dominant non-syndromic hearing impairment. We determined the complete sequence and the intron-exon structure of the human TECTA gene. In both families, mutation analysis revealed missense mutations which replace conserved amino-acid residues within the zona pellucida domain of TECTA. These findings indicate that mutations in TECTA are responsible for hearing impairment in these families, and implicate a new type of protein in the pathogenesis of hearing impairment.

Previously [Appl. Opt. 36, p. 9212 (1997)] we examined the performance of the linear and nonlinear preprocessed difference-of-Gaussians filter, and it was shown that this operation results in greater tolerance to in-class variations while maintaining excellent discrimination ability. The introduction of nonlinearity was shown to provide greater robustness to the filter's response to noise and background clutter in the input scene. We incorporate this new operation into the synthesis of a modified synthetic discriminant function filter. The filter is shown to produce sharp peaks, excellent discrimination without the need to include out-of-class objects, and good invariance to out-of-plane rotation over a distortion range of up to 90 degrees . Additionally, the introduction of nonlinearity is shown to provide greater robustness of the filter response to background clutter in the input scene.

A minimal animat architecture, consisting only of a set of autonomous, direct, and continuously active sensorimotor links, is shown to support a full range of `action selection' phenomena. A genetic algorithm is used to engineer the activation functions supported by these links. No `actions' are `selected' in this model, and the use of artificial evolution means that there is no artificial separation of the problems of `link design' from `link fusion'. Implications are drawn for how the concepts of `action selection' and `selective attention' may relate to the idea of coherence between sensorimotor processes.

Assessment reform, in particular a move towards more school-based forms of assessment, has become a global phenomenon. Involving teachers more centrally in assessment has often been rationalised by claims derived from the literature on formative assessment, hinging on the enhanced validity of performance assessment and the potential of classroom assessment for improving the quality of learning. This paper draws on work in Ghana and England which suggests that in neither case are the potentialities for improvement being realised. Teachers¿ conceptualisation of assessment has been a significant barrier to improvement. We present outlines of participatory research projects to address this problem, where practitioners¿ own investigation will be used as a way of addressing the need for changes, rooted both in increased technical expertise and in their own belief systems. The divergent contexts for the projects may enable a deeper evaluation of the potential of this methodology than might have occurred in just one country.